Resounding The Faith

[Greek] πορεύω (poreuō): to move from one place to another, to go, to cause to go, to go through a passage, to go through something porous, to pass through, to travel on a journey, to behave, to go way, to be sent, to proceed along a road, to die, to walk; (147 New Testament scriptural references)

Arrival of a Caravan Outside the City of Morocco (painting by Edwin Lord Weeks in 1882): Caravans were used to set up trade routes in the desert areas and throughout the Silk Road.

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term means to set into motion, to convey, to lead, to take over, to cause to stumble against someone, to travel, to go, journey, to go to work, and to follow. The sense of following someone rarely occurs in the Greco-Roman world. This term is extensively used with traveling and journeying. Thucydides’ Histories IV,132.2 states, “Ischagoras, a Lacedamonian, was leading an army of foot soldiers unto Brasidas.”  Xenophon’s Anabasis 2.2.11 states “We intend to take a route that is longer, to be sure, but one where we shall not lack provisions.” The destination of the soul plays an important role in Greek mythology and literature.

Greek perspective of the afterlife: The Greek world speaks of the dead (soul) journeying into Hades. With further understanding of the concept of the soul, a sharper distinction is made between the mortal body and immortal soul. Only the soul journeys into the world to come. Souls return either to their heavenly home or to Hades, the place of punishment. Plato’s Republic 10.614 states, “He said that when his soul went forth from his body… it came to a mysterious region. The judges were sitting…Every judgment that binds the righteous to the right and upwards…and the unjust to take the road to the left and downward.”

Old Testament: This term, pertaining to one’s conduct (walk in life), conveys the sense of traveling and movement in various ways. This term can be used in a literal sense (going), eschatological sense (passing away), a transferred sense (keeping the commandments), theological sense (to follow someone), and imperative sense (to be sent). The Old Testament worldview originally viewed that after death, one is gathered to his ancestors in the family grave. Then later, the Old Testament worldview accepts that sheol will receive all the dead. Influenced by the Greek view of immortality, sheol becomes the place were souls stay between death and the resurrection.

New Testament: As with the Old Testament, this term is used in various senses. As the Old Testament culture viewed death with resignation, Jesus’ death is divinely appointed for redemptive purposes. The work of Jesus and the disciples involve movement (sending, commissioning, departing, and preaching). Jesus used divine commands of rising and moving in reference to healing miracles and possessions. Jesus must leave the disciples in order for the Holy Spirit to come to them. This term also refers to Jesus’ descent into Hades and ascension into heaven.

Buyers and Sellers: The merchant (emporos) is the person on a journey (poros). This person often moves (travels) while buying and selling merchandise. The venue for commerce, business, and trading is called the emporium. The kingdom of heaven is like a merchant searching for fine pearls.

Scripture:

“As they continued their journey He entered a village where a woman whose name was Martha welcomed Him.” Lk.10:38

Jesus often traveled. Movement was a very important of Jesus’ ministry.

“For the Son of Man indeed goes as it has been determined; but woe to that man by whom He is betrayed.” Lk.22:22

Jesus must die in order to redeem man.  Jesus goes to heaven so that the Holy Spirit can come.

“Both were righteous in the eyes of God, observing all the commandments and ordinances of the Lord blamelessly.” Lk.1:6

This type of walk pertains to one’s conduct in following the Lord. This was an important value for the Jew.

Conclusion:

Pore, porous, emporium

It is important to note that the cosmopolitan Greco-Roman world was characterized by much movement, such as trade, commerce, and military campaigns. The Roman Empire flourished due its building of roads. The understanding of the fate (movement) of the soul was a very important value in the Greco-Roman world. It was interesting to discover that a sense of judgment exists in the Grecian afterlife.

Likewise, one’s conduct (walk in life) was very important to the Hebrew (Israelite) in the Old Testament. One can either walk with Yahweh or walk in another path. It is important to note that Hellenism contributes in developing the future understanding of one’s soul.

Movement was very important in the work of Jesus and His disciples. Jesus commanded His disciples to spread the gospel to all nations. Jesus traveled (moved) to those in need of His healing.

Merchants and moneychangers often gathered in the Temple grounds or the agora (public marketplace).  Merchants often traveled in caravans in order to open trade routes. These buyers and sellers become the early precursors to today’s corporate business persons and business travelers. As far as a camel was concerned, merchants didn’t leave home without it.

[Greek] κέντρον (kentron), [Latin] centrum: center, sharp point, sting, prick, goad, pointed stick; 1Cor.15:55,56, Act. 26:14, Rev.9:10

The honey bee becomes helpless and dies when it loses its stinger

Background informtion:

Hellenism: This term, essentially meaning anything which pierces, can refer to an animal claw, bee stinger, porcupine quill, whip, goad (pointing stick), mathematical point (coordinates), a metaphor, authority, and proverbial saying. In a metaphorical sense, this term can refer to authority (tyranny), pain (torment) of the soul, futile resistance, and divine interference. The tragic poets (tragedians) quite often wrote plays about tormented, tragic, and destructive characters.

Kicking against the goad: This is primarily a Greek or Latin rural expression which originates from the practice of goading oxen in the fields. A goad is essentially a pointed wooden stick. Farmers used the pointed end to urge a stubborn beast into motion. Occasionally, the beast would kick at the goad. The more the beast kicked, the more likely the goad would stab into the flesh of the beast’s leg.

Metaphorical uses: Playwright Aeschylus’ Eumenides 155 states, “Reproach, coming to me in a dream, struck me like a charioteer with a goad held tight.” Tragic poet Sophocles’ Philocetes 1039 states, “Since you would never have made this voyage for one so miserable, unless some god-sent goad had driven you after me.” Biographer Plutarch’s Solon 24.3 states, “The same person was not allowed to eat at the town hall often, but if one whose duty it was to eat there refused, he was punished.” Poet Pindar’s Pythion 2.94 states, “Kicking the goad makes the path treacherous.”

Old Testament: This term refers to a goad (stick), a physical sting, a metaphorical sting, destruction, and a weakness. Since the Old Testament culture was primarily an agrarian environment, references to goads predominate. Physical bee stings and figurative references to the “sting” of death occur. These make an allusion to the chastisement from Yahweh. In addition, this can mean a weakness or infirmity. Sayings of wisdom become like harsh goads difficult to accept. O, Death, where is your sting? (Hos.5:14). I am like a moth for Ephraim (Hos.5:12). The goad for the ass (Prov.26:3). The sayings of the wise are like goads (Eccl.12:11). How can he be learned who guides the plow, who thrills in wielding the goad like a lance (Sir.38:25). Since even bees at the time for making honeycombs defend themselves against intruders, as though with an iron dart (4Macc.14:19). Shall I redeem them from death (Hos.13:14).

New Testament: This term can mean sting, stinger, goad, power to kill, and the power to hurt. Sin gives death its power (sting). When sin is overcome, death is robbed of its power. Paul relates Jesus’s words of how Paul was persecuting Him. Paul was kicking against the goad. It interesting to note that this expression did not occur in the Jewish culture. Rather, Paul actually was influenced by the Hellenistic traditions. In Revelations, upon the blowing of the fifth trumpet, scorpions with stingers evokes creatures coming up from the abyss. Scorpions are one the fabled demonic creatures.

Scripture:

“Where, O death, is your victory? Where, O death, is your sting? The sting of death is sin, and the power of sin is the law.” 1Cor.15:55-56

Death is personified. Death’s sting (power). Christ overcomes this sting.

“We all fell to the ground and I heard a voice saying to me in Hebrew, ‘Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me? It is hard for you to kick against the goad.’”  Acts. 26:14

Christ appears before Paul on the road to Damascus. Perhaps, on some level, Christ was already goading (preparing) Paul for his new role.  Like a stubborn animal, Paul was resisting Jesus’s plans for him.

Conclusion:

Center, centered, centre, goad, centrum

Aside from animals and wooden sticks, I was quite surprised by the extensive metaphorical and figurative use of this term in Greco-Roman literature. Both Luke and Paul were influenced by Hellenism. I can imagine that the poets, playwrights and historians would have a field day using this term to convey pain and torment. “The gods goaded (forced me) to do that!” I can imagine that Shakespeare would say this in his own flowery language.

Shakespeare:

“If I be waspish, best beware my sting!” -– Taming of the Shrew

“If you prick us, do we not bleed?”— The Merchant of Venice

In the Old Testament culture, it was interesting to discover how death was associated with a sting. A goad would have been very commonly utilized with oxen. Interestingly, however, The Old Testament (Jewish) culture did not use the expression “kicking the goad.”

In a sense, Paul was kicking the goad in his ultimately futile resistance against Jesus and the Christians. Paul was acting like a rabid Pharisee. Perhaps, Jesus was slowly goading, nudging along, and preparing Paul for his new role as an Apostle. It is very interesting to note that Paul says he heard a voice (in Hebrew saying a Greco-Roman expression “kick against the goad.”

When a honey bee stings a person, it leaves more than its stinger. The bee’s massive abdominal rupture (from its stinging someone) kills the bee. Honey bees are the only bees to die after stinging. The bee’s loss of its stinger is its death!

This term plays a very important role in mathematics (middle point of a sphere or circle). This is also the point where all activity is directed to (Ex. shopping center).

‎[Greek] ὁρμάω (hormaō), [Latin] introire: to set into motion, to hasten, to rush, to start, to spur, to urge on, to run violently, to rush in a stampede, to incite; Mt. 8:32, Mk.5:13, Lk.8:33, Acts.7:57, Acts.19:29

The Stoning of Stephen (painting by Rembrandt in 1625): The Jews were “moved” to stone Stephen to death. Experts claim that the person immediately behind Stephen (with the stone) may be the image of Rembrandt.

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term, conveying rapid or swift movement, can be found in  physical, and varying “movements” of psychological (emotional) senses. The physical sense is illustrated by military movements and motion in the cosmos. Xenophon’s Anabasis 4.3.31 states, “While they were equipped well enough for attack and retreat in the mountains, their equipment was not adequate for hand to hand fighting.” The emotional sense is illustrated by emotions of anger (temper), passions, impulses, desires, and inclinations. These psychological senses, depending on the circumstances, may or may not be subject to the will. Xenophon’s Anabasis 3.1.24 states, “Let us not, in the name of the gods, wait for others to come to us and summon us to the noblest of deeds.” Interestingly, this psychological sense of this term is unique to Hellenism.

Old Testament: This term is related to several Hebrew words indicating various motions and impulses. Interestingly, there is no Hebrew term for will. The Hellenistic psychological sense is hardly used at all in the Old Testament. The Hebrew meanings refer to hurrying, to being eager, to turning, to approaching, to deploying, to plundering, to retreating, to putting upon, to setting in place, and to bringing to pass. Hostile and violent movement occur in the Maccabees books. Sexual desires and passions are “moved” in Genesis and in Song of Solomon. Man is often seen moved by the Spirit. God’s wrath is also often evoked towards man. The sense of movement helps to illustrate the Old Testament’s concept of Yahweh as a wrathful God.

The waters of the Jordan resumed their course (Jos.4:18). He stirred up the east wind in the heavens (Psa.77:26). The Jews determined not to delay, but to charge gallantly (2Macc.15:17). Yet your urge shall be for your husband (Gen.3:16). Your rage against the sea (Hab.3:8). The Spirit of the Lord will rush upon you (1Sam.10:6). The Spirit which had lifted me up seized me (Eze.3:14). Everyone keeps running his course, like a steed dashing into battle (Jer.8:6).

New Testament: Interestingly, this term is narrowly defined by rushing as in a stampede. As in the Old Testament, this term does not have a psychological sense. Both man and swine rush forward in violent movement devoid of any reason. As the demons enter the swine, the swine rush down into steep bank and later drown. Men rush forward to kill Stephen and also seize Paul’s traveling companions. This violent movement stands in contrast to the Hellenistic notion of a thoughtful and deliberate action of a person.

Scripture:

“The demons came out of the man and entered the swine, and the herd rushed down the steep bank in the lake and was drowned.” Lk. 8:33

Jesus’ speaking of the name of the demons prompts them to leave the man and enter into the swine. The swine are forced into the lake.

“The city was filled with confusion, and the people rushed with one accord into the theater, seizing Gaius and Aristarchus, Paul’s traveling companions.” Acts 19:29

The silversmiths rioted in response to Paul’s words saying that the gods made by hands are not gods at all. In their anger, they seize Paul’s companions.

“But they cried out in a loud voice, covered their ears, and rushed upon Stephen together.” Acts 7:57

When the crowd heard Stephen’s words, they reacted in fury. The people intended to stone Stephen.  Stephen becomes the first Christian martyr.

Conclusion:

Hormone, hormonal, intro, introduction

It was interesting to learn that the psychological sense of this term is strictly a Hellenistic convention. Yet, this rarely occurs in the Old Testament or New Testament. I can only imagine that this psychological sense would occur quite frequently in the popular Greek tragedy (play).

The Old Testament is already known for such great “movements” of rebellion, disobedience, violence, and wrath, passion, feelings and emotions. Even Jesus, who held power over the demons, could evoke fear among them. The demons forced the swine to drown in the lake. Paul’s words about the false nature of the gods provoked the fury among the silversmiths. Essentially, the words of Stephen and Paul eventually provoked the Jews to put them to death.

Rembrandt made many self-portraits of himself over his life. He even placed his self-portrait (as a participant or spectator) in at least five of his paintings. In his painting, ‘The Stoning of Stephen,’ painted in 1625, experts claim that the person (holding the rock) immediately over Stephen is the image of Rembrandt himself. Rembrandt’s identification with saint’s executioners helps explains why he later appeared in he later appeared in his later painting ‘The Raising of the Cross.’

Hormones such as adrenaline (and others) act on our bodies to stimulate or “incite” various body processes. No wonder it is called ‘adrenaline rush’!

Got to go. I need to rush off to work on my next post.

‎[Greek] ὑπερβολή (hyperbolē),  [Latin] supra, [Latin] excelentoriem, [Latin] sublimitas, [Latin] magnitudo: a throwing beyond, excess, excellence, superiority, abundance, exceeding, extraordinary amount, a surpassing, exaggeration, beyond measure, all surpassing; Rom.7:13, 1Cor.12:31, 2Cor.1:8, 2Cor.4:7,17, 2Cor.12:7, Gal.1:13

Ancient Greco-Roman masks showing exaggerated and outlandish expressions

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term means excess, supreme, and extreme. The Greek tragedy was a very popular literary art form which often shed light on the human condition. A hyperbole was a literary device used by tragedians (playwrights) to illustrate a tragic situation. Aeschylus’ Agamemnon 659 states, “the Aegean sea was blossoming with corpses.” Aeschylus’ Choephoroi 505 states, “children as corks that hold up a net (in the water).” Euripides’ Hippolytus 936 states, “What limit can be set to the boldness and brazenness. It if it grows still, the gods will have to add another earth to our world to hold the criminal and vile.”

Old Testament: This term occurs infrequently conveying the basic sense of going beyond and above all things. This term, as a noun, appears only once in the Old Testament. The verb form occurs more frequently, having the sense of exceeding , surpassing, and going beyond . This term is illustrated by immeasurable pains, surpassing fear of the Lord, outbidding someone, reaching a high level, excessive cruelties, and exceedingly great fear. Philo makes reference to man’s exceeding wickedness, man’s most grievous life, most affectionate fathers, God’s superabundant blessings, God’s surpassing power, and God’s overflowing riches (and goodness).  It can overthrow bodily agonies even when they are extreme (4Macc.3:18). Fear of the Lord surpasses all else (Sir.25:11). He flattered the king with such an air that he secured the high priesthood by himself, outbidding Jason (2Macc.4:24). The craze for Hellenism and foreign customs reached such a pitch (2Macc.4:13). Enough had been said about the sacrificial meals and the excessive cruelties (2Macc.7:42). Both friends and bodyguards, fearing that he would lose his life, quickly dragged him out, panic-stricken in their exceedingly great fear (3Macc.2:23).

New Testament: This term, occurring only in Paul’s letters, also conveys the sense of extra-ordinary, all-surpassing, and beyond measure. In the book of Romans, Paul states that sin becomes more sinful (magnified) under the Law. In the book of Corinthians, Paul states that this affliction (persecution) and being weighed down beyond our strength for the sake of Christ will produce a weight of glory beyond comparison. The Christian path calls for one to strive for the greatest spiritual gifts. As earthen vessels, man holds inside himself this surpassing power (grace) form God. Paul also relates his former way of life in Judaism as a zealous Pharisee. Paul persecuted the church of God beyond measure.

Scripture:

“Sin, in order that it might be shown to be sin, worked death in me through the good, so that sin might by sinful beyond measure through the commandment.” Rom.7:13

The Law encourages sin to expose itself in hopefully allowing one to experience God’s grace. Otherwise, too much dependence on the Law will not allow one to overcome this sin.

“Strive eagerly for the greatest spiritual gifts. But I shall show you a still more excellent way.” 1Cor.12:31

Paul describes the Christian way as a much superior path in life.

“For you heard of my former way of life in Judaism, how I persecuted the church of Go beyond measure and tried to destroyed it.” Gal. 1:13

Paul acknowledges his zeal and effectiveness in persecuting the Christians. Paul actually thought he was being faithful in his Jewish faith.

Hyperbole: Essentially a rhetorical device or literary figure of speech, a hyperbole evokes and creates strong feelings. A hyperbole can also be considered as a metaphor or simile. In theory, this device is usually not meant to be taken literally. A hyperbole may also be used in situations for emphasis or effect. Understanding a hyperbole, in the current context, helps one to understand the message sent by the speaker. Hyperbole can be used in the form of humor, excitement, distress, or other emotions, all depending on the context in which the speaker uses it. Essentially, this idea means “throwing beyond” or even “going over the top”.

Conclusion:

Hyperbole, hyperbolic, hyperbola, super, excellent, sublime, magnitude

Since the beginning of the stage, performers have often worn masks. These masks often have exaggerated or outlandish expressions, illustrating and identifying the characters. The actor, underneath the mask, is playing a part. Interestingly, a hypocrite is also one who hides under a mask (persona). The playwright often uses hyperbole for purposes of social commentary or for comedic effect.

In the Old Testament, this term is used to convey the sense of going beyond (both good and bad) in a conventional sense. God’s goodness and abundance and man’s sinfulness and wickedness were often illustrated.

However, in the New Testament, the going beyond of sin and persecution can lead to good with God’s grace. A sinful person, open to God’s grace, can be redeemed by God. Paul is a perfect illustration. The spiritual blessings (grace) can often exceed the struggles and difficulties. Often at times, the Pharisees, Sadduccees, and scribes were hypocrites, like actors playing a part. They say one thing but do another.

On a personal note, while I do not wear a mask, I try to take you back in time through history with these posts. Instead, I try to be that fly on the wall, and that is not an exaggeration!

‎[Greek] ἐρημία (erēmia), [Latin] erimeta: wilderness (a place for a hermit), desert, desolate place, place of desolation (destruction), hermetic place, deserted place, uninhabited place, solitude, lonely place; Mt.15:33, Mk. 8:4, 2Cor.11:26, Heb.11:38

The Battle of Salamis (painting by Willhem von Kaubach 1864): The once-beaten and outnumbered Greeks, forced to abandon Attica and Athens, later outmaneuver the Persian King Xerxes and his soldiers at the island of Salamis

Background Information:

Battle of Salamis: This term can mean desert, wasteland, empty place, abandoned place, or unpopulated place. This event was a naval battle fought between the Greek city-states and the Persian Empire under King Xerxes. Earlier, the once-defeated Athenians abandoned Athens and evacuated the population of Attic to the island of Salamis. Herodotus’ Histories 8.65 states, “Dicaeus said that the land of Attica was being laid waste by Xerxes’ army and there were not any Athenians in the country.” The outnumbered Greeks eventually outmaneuvered the Persians and later won the war.

Old Testament: This term, occurring over 130 times, is related to three Hebrew terms. Two of these terms convey the subject (object) of desolation, waste, and devastation. Interestingly, these terms appear very frequently. The third Hebrew term conveys the active sense of causing destruction, laying waste, making desolate, being in ruins, drying up, attacking, destroying, and killing (slaying). Kings and others are slain. Cities, landmarks, and places are destroyed. The waters were dried up from off the earth (Gen.8:13). The kings of Assyria have destroyed the nations and the lands (2Kg.19:17). Those nations shall be utterly wasted (Isa.60:12). That this house shall become a desolation (Jer.22:5). Thy prophets are like the foxes in the deserts (Eze.13:4). I will make the cities of Judah desolate (Jer.9:11). They have made my pleasant portion a desolate wilderness (Jer.12:10).

New Testament: On the other hand, this term occurs only four times in the New Testament. This term, meaning lonely place, refers to a deserted place, wilderness, or desert. Interestingly, such examples do not illustrate the sense of violence or destruction. This deserted place is characteristically described as a dangerous place, where demons reside, where refugees and outcasts reside, and where dangers to the body (and soul) reside. The wilderness of Israel has been historically been linked with disobedience to God and God’s signs and wonders.

Jesus: Interestingly, Jesus views the wilderness in a much more positive manner. This place is where Jesus goes to escape from the crowd and the disciples. The wilderness is a place of quiet to spend time in the stillness of prayer with God the Father. The wilderness is a quiet place for His disciples. The wilderness becomes the starting point for the mission of John the Baptist where he fulfills the prophecy of Isa. 40:3. John becomes the voice crying in the desert, preparing the way of the Lord.

Scripture:

“The disciples said to Him, ‘Where could we ever get enough bread in this deserted place to satisfy such a crowd?’” Mt. 15:33

The disciples show their lack of faith and trust in how the crowd was going be provided for.

“The world was not worthy of them. They wandered about in deserts and on mountains, in caves and in crevices in the earth.” Heb.11:38

Paul was making reference to the faith of the ancients in the Old Testament. In 1Macc.2:27-29 Mattathias and his sons fled to the mountains, leaving behind in the city all their possessions. Many who sought righteous and justice went out into the wilderness.

Conclusion:

Hermit, hermetic, hermitage

I was somewhat surprised by the high number of references to destruction, devastation, and laying waste in the Old Testament. Perhaps, this is in part due to man’s sinful nature and God’s wrath. Although it makes sense, I guess I really never associated destruction, desolation, and hermits in the same context.

A hermitage can be any dwelling (building) where a hermit resides. In early Christianity, this was a place (spiritual retreat) where religious men lived to escape the temptations of the world.  A hermitage is also a place where aristocrats, politicians, and other influential persons have resided in retreating from their responsibilities.

On the other hand, I was really surprised by the very sparse use of this term in the New Testament. Jesus saw the wilderness as a place of refuge, solitude, and a place of prayer.

The hermetic seal is thought to be originally invented by an alchemist. This seal became associated with Hermes Trismegistus, the god of alchemy.

The ancient city of Attica was famous for its figs. The ruler of Attica actually made it illegal to export figs out of Greece. The Persian King Xerxes, after his defeat by the Greeks, had figs served him at every meal to remind him that he did not possess the land where this fruit grew.  Go figure!

[Greek] σπένδω (spendō), [Latin] libare: to pour out, to make a libation, to be poured out like a drink, to devote one’s life (or blood) as a sacrifice, to be ready, to be offered, to be poured out as a drink offering; Php.2:17, 2Tim.4:6

Trajan’s Column in Rome: Emperor Trajan pours a libation on an altar in a ceremony to inaugurate the Danube bridge.

Background Information:

Greco-Roman culture: This is a cultic term which means to pour out a portion of a drink on the ground as an offering.  Libations (drink offerings) were often on par with animal sacrifices. In addition to symposia (drinking parties), libations were made in various circumstances. Such situations include animal sacrifices, seeking help from the gods, swearing of oaths, concluding treaties, recognizing important events, launching of ships and armies, and honoring the gods (and fallen heroes). In some mystery “religions,” wine and blood were poured out together.

Symposium: This is essentially a drinking party in which influential persons would assemble together to discuss various topics and celebrate special occasions. A libation is poured out any time wine is to be drunk. Generally, a libation was first made to Zeus, then to fallen heroes, and then to Zeus Teleios (god of endings). Homer’s Illiad 7.480 captures the essence of making a libation. The passage states “And they let the wine flow from their cups upon the ground, neither does any man drink until he had made a drinking offering to the gods.” In ancient Roman religion, a libation was an act of worship in the form of a liquid offering. Some tombs were equipped with tubes to receive these libations.

Old Testament: This term is specifically linked to the Hebrew term nasak, which means to pour out, to cast metal, to anoint, and to cover. Examples include pouring out a drink offering (or wine), casting out graven images with molten gold, and anointing. This act of pouring signifies a dedication of a covenant and instituting a king. Libation in Israel was most likely adopted from the pagan world. Libations poured upon the altar were often joined with animal sacrifices. Interestingly, there are closely related Hebrew terms which refer to the pouring out (shedding) of blood and the pouring out (emptying) of one’s life. Pouring out, shedding blood, and emptying one’s self all involve offering of one’s self. Jacob set up a pillar and he poured a drink offering on it (Gen.35:14). To cover it with of pure gold (Ex.25:29). He burnt his burnt offering and poured his drink offering (2Kgs.16:13). They shall not offer a wine offering to the Lord (Hos.9:4). The woman casted a graven image (Isa.40:19). Pour out drink offerings to the gods (Jer.7:18). The Lord has poured out upon you the spirit of deep sleep (Isa.29:10). Blood libations to them (gods) I will not pour out (Psa.16:4). The priest stretched for his hand for the cup to offer the blood of the grape, and he poured it at the foot of the altar (Sir. 50:15)

New Testament: This term, occurring only twice, spiritualizes the cultic practice of pouring out libations on the altar. The drink offering represents the offering of life. This pouring out makes reference to Paul’s martyrdom. Paul already offers himself up in his ministry and apostleship. These two scriptural references make later reference to the shedding of Paul’s blood (death) on the altar. Interestingly, this closely ties to Jesus’ emptying of Himself, shedding His blood and even dying on the Cross (Php.2:7).

Scripture:

“But, even if I am poured out as a libation upon the sacrificial service of your faith, I rejoice and share my joy with all of you.” Php.2:17

In ancient religious rituals, the pouring out of a liquid on the ground becomes part of the sacrificial offering.  Paul means he will be facing death.

“For I am already being poured out like a libation, and the time of my departure is at hand.” 2Tim.4:6

Paul’s death will be imminent. Paul regard his death as an act of worship in which his blood will be poured out in sacrifice.

Conclusion:

Spend, spent, libation

It was very interesting to learn about those situations and circumstances when a libation was called for. Essentially, libations were used to celebrate, inaugurate, and affirm events. Animal sacrifices were often performed in conjunction with libations.

The ancient symposium becomes the precursor to the modern day symposium which occurs in the corporate (business) world. A speaker discuss a topic or theme. A meal also often occurs.

To be honest, I was not very familiar with the act of pouring out libations in a sacrificial offering. One can visualize the act of pouring out holy oil as the prophet anoints a king.

It is interesting to note that the cultic act of pouring out libations becomes more spiritualized when this refers to Paul and Jesus. Paul’s life is to be poured out for Christ. This also helps to shed light on how Jesus also pours out His blood on this journey to the Cross.

Libation is one of these words which we do not really use in ordinary conversation. Instead, we just use drink.

[Greek] στοιχέω (stoicheō), [Latin] ambulare, [Latin] sequere, [French] marcher, [French] voyager: to walk by rule, to follow, to be stoic, to walk orderly, to conform to, to adhere to a standard of life, to imitate, to walk in a straight path, to walk in line, to behave, to follow the same path; Acts 21:24, Rom.4:12, Gal.5:25, Gal.6:16, Php.3:16

Background information:

Stoicism: This is a school of Hellenistic philosophy which was heavily influenced by certain teachings of Socrates. Stoicism gets its name from the heavily fortified stoa (covered walkway or portico) in Athens. It is here where the followers gathered to learn these teachings. Stoicism is predominately a philosophy of personal ethics. According to its teachings, man must accept the moment as it presents itself. Man also must not let himself be overcome by his desires (for pleasure) or his fears. In order to live a good life, one must understand the rules of the natural order.

Greek Hellenism: This term means to belong in a series, to be in rank, to act in harmony, to come to an agreement, and to assent to. Such illustrations (examples) include botany, armies, philosophy, astronomy, conduct, speeches, and contracts. Xenophon Cyropaedia 6.3.34 states “you officers (of the chariots), one shall take its place in line upon the right flank of the army, the other on the left, and follow the phalanx each in single file.” Polybius Histories 2 states “I will now relate the events which immediately succeed these, touching upon summarily upon each in accordance with my original plan.”

Old Testament: This term is related to the Hebrew term kasher, which is rarely used in the Old Testament. Kasher means to be straight, to be right, to be acceptable, to succeed, or to prosper. In the Old Testament, the imagery of walking with God is quite often associated with a code of conduct and adherence to rules (laws) in accordance with God. This essentially means walking on the right path. This idea will be later very important for those Jews of the Diaspora who sought to maintain their Jewish ethical and moral principles while in foreign lands. If it seems good to the king and if I have found favor with, if the thing seems right to the king (Esth.8:5). But the advantage of wisdom is success (Eccl.10:10). For you do not know which of the two will be successful (Eccl.11:6).

New Testament: This term means essentially to behave or to imitate. Not surprisingly, this term continues the Old Testament imagery of walking. This sense of walking is conveyed by being in agreement with someone, in being in step with, and in following someone. Such illustrations include observing the Law, following Abraham’s path, following the Spirit, conforming to the Cross of Jesus, and continuing on the same course.

Scripture:

“But also follow the path of faith that our father Abraham walked while still uncircumcised.” Rom.4:12

Abraham was justified by faith. Abraham’s faith involved receipt of forgiveness of sins. All believers benefit as he did through faith.

“Only, with regard to what we have attained, continue on the same course.” Php.3:16

The imagery of walking conveys the sense of moving on the right path (direction).

“If we live in the Spirit, let us also follow the Spirit” Gal.5:25

This involves following the Truth of the Spirit.

Conclusion:

Stoic, stoicism, ambulance, sequence, march, voyage, voyager

The philosophy of Stoicism declined when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire. Stoicism had flourished in the Greco-Roman world. Upon learning aspects of Stoicism, I found that there seem to be some admirable principles in this secular philosophy. The four cardinal virtues of Stoicism are wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance. It is interesting to note that the idea of following into line is clearly illustrated in military (army) imagery.

It is significant to note that the Old Testament culture develops the idea of walking imagery to convey a code of conduct and adherence to the Law. This important imagery continues into the New Testament culture. It is also interesting to note that the vast majority of Christian follow natural law (God’s law).

It is important to acknowledge that both Jews and Christian had to follow the correct path in order to be faithful in their respective faiths. The Jews were confronted with either keeping their Jewish traditions or with following the new path of Christianity. In other situations, other groups followed a hybrid (mixture) of Jewish and Christian beliefs. One such example refers to the God-fearers.

It is interesting in how that the current meaning of stoicism comes from the the Stoics’ code of conduct rather than from the stoa (covered walkway).  That about covers it for now. ( I hope you were able to heroically and stoically endure that pun in the present moment). :-J

‎[Greek] στίγμα (stigma), [Latin] stigmata: tattoo, brand, mark, blot, scar, prick, social blot, scar of service, burn mark, sign of shame; Gal. 6:17

An awl was used to pierce the ears of a slave. An earring was given to show that the slave was attached to his master.

Background Information:

Greco-Roman culture: Branded marks were given to domestic animals, slaves, criminals, soldiers, and worshippers (followers). It was customary to brand cattle as a means to make theft more difficult. The man who bore the stigma, a sign of dishonor since antiquity, was given to robbers, criminals, slaves, and prisoners. Plato’s Laws IX, 854d states “Whosoever is caught robbing a temple, if he be foreigner or slave, his curse shall be branded on his forehead.” Caligula even branded the foreheads of some citizens who were condemned to forced labor in the construction of buildings and roads. The runaway slave was branded on the forehead with the letters “FUG”, meaning fugitivus (fugitive).

Desire for marks: In some situations, marks are given to denote membership in a group, tribe, or cultic deity. The recruit to the Roman army was marked by tattooed signs on the hand. This mark denotes loyalty to one’s superior. When a follower was given the sacred mark, he was dedicated to the god and became its servant. Therefore, this servant was put under the god’s protection. The servant of the god Dionysius (Bacchus) was given a tattoo of an ivy leaf. Dionysius was the god of the grape harvest. Then his master shall bring him to God, then he shall bring him to the door or doorpost. And his master shall pierce his ear with an awl; and he shall serve him permanently (Exo. 21:6).

Old Testament: Interestingly, this rarely corresponds to the Greek understanding of stigma. Instead of meaning stigma, this term means a little ball, a piece of jewelry, point, and moment.  Other Hebrews term convey the notion of a mark expressing attachment to a man or to God. When a slave wanted to attach himself to his master, the slave’s ear was pierced by an awl at the door-post in God’s presence. The slave’s earring indicated a mark of slavery and sign of becoming protected by his master.

Sacral markings: Sacral markings are found in Jacob’s prophetic mission and in God’s commitment to Jerusalem. In Isa. 44:5 Jacob claims this one shall write on his hand, ‘The Lord’s.’ This alludes to the Babylonian custom of tattooing the slave’s hand. Likewise, God makes a confession of Jerusalem in caring for the city. In Isa. 49:16 God has written your name (Jerusalem) in His “hands.” This helps us to understand why the Feast of the Passover and Redemption of the Firstborn are to be taken seriously as if they were a sign. In Ex. 28:36 the head-plate of the high priest bears the inscription “Sacred to Yahweh.”

The mark of Cain: For his transgressions, Cain was given a mark (tattooed sign) by God. In Gen. 49:15 God marked Cain as His own possession and set him under His “protection”. God did not brand Cain as a murderer. Instead, Cain received a punishment worse than death. God took away Cain’s livelihood by forcing him to live his life with unfruitful works and guilt (of having killed his brother). Judgment would also fall on some of Cain’s descendants. The sacral sign is only legitimate and effective only when it is given (received) from God.

New Testament: Interestingly, this term occurs only once in Gal. 6:17. It is unclear whether or not Paul is speaking figuratively or literally. In a sense, Paul becomes a slave belonging to Christ. Slaves were often branded by marks burned into their flesh to show to whom they belonged. Likewise, marked followers were devoted to their pagan gods. Like Christ, Paul received stonings and floggings. Paul was also blinded on the road to Damascus for persecuting Jesus. Jesus is Paul’s master who will protect him.

Scripture:

“From now one, let no one make troubles for me; for I bear the marks of Jesus on my body.” Gal. 6:17

Paul, as a slave of Christ, has borne the wounds of Christ in both a literal and figurative way.

Conclusion:

Stigma, stigmata

I found that this term has a very rich and interesting backstory. Even, in ancient history, I suppose that branding livestock (cattle) provided a practical use for tattooing. In the Greco-Roman era (and other times), there often exists such cruelty in human nature. Branding and marking was used to diminish (belittle) one’s human dignity regarding slaves, prisoners, and criminals. Such acts of cruelty will later occur in concentration camps in the 20^th century. Unfortunately, other forms of slavery still exist.

I think it is more interesting to discover the more “positive” aspects of the use of stigmata and marks in human history. Being willing to receive a mark was a very important way to show one’s devotion to a god. In the same way, a soldier’s tattoo (sacramentum) provides a visible and public means to show loyalty to one’s superior.

It was also interesting to learn how sacral marks coming from God were very important. These sacral marks indicate one’s attachment to God. This alludes to the slave’s bond to his master. God marks Cain for His providential purposes. 3Macc.2:29 makes reference to those who are registered to be branded with an ivy leaf of the god Dionysus.

It was fascinating to learn about situations in which a person would be willing to become a slave (indentured servant) for someone else. This would occur someone was forced to work off his debts and obligations. The piercing of the ear indicates that person’s attachment to his master. The doorpost alludes to the Exodus story when the Israelites were liberated from forced slavery. The blood alludes to the priest placing blood on the right ear of those being cleansed in the guilt offering (sacrifice).

Paul, as a slave, becomes attached to his Master Christ. Paul receives afflictions in his service for Christ. Paul becomes a willing slave for Christ.

In more recent contexts, people will sometimes still get tattoos to mark or remember an important event or person. For example, we all are very familiar with the guy who gets a tattoo of his girlfriend’s name.  And sometimes there are regrets, but I think you get the point.

‎[Greek] σανδάλιον (sandalion), [Latin] caliga; sandal, sole-pad, shoe with a leather or wood sole held together by thongs or straps, Mk.6:8, Act.12:8

The sandal of a Roman soldier

Background Information:

Ancient History: This term essentially means sandals or shoes. Situations and circumstances often determined the use (and non-use) of sandals. During a journey when there was no need to wear sandals, a servant (or slave) would carry the sandals of his master. Roman solders typically wore leather and thonged sandals. In Xenophon’s Anabasis IV,5,14, the men would wear their shoes so long, that their straps would sink into their flesh. Sandals were taken off in the sanctuary or for mourning (or fasting). The emperor Caligula’s “nickname” means little soldier’s boot. This comes from his father’s soldiers’ campaign in Germania.

Old Testament: This refers to the Hebrew naal, which means sandal or shoe. It was customary to walk bare foot on holy grounds. Likewise, priests also walked barefoot in the temple. No one was allowed on holy grounds with sandals or with dusty feet. Visitors, upon entering one’s house, were also required to take off their sandals. The servant (or the master) of the house would often wash their guest’s feet. This becomes an act of hospitality and service. They clothed them, put sandals on their feet, and gave them food to drink (2Chr.28:15). As David went up to the Mount of Olives, his head was covered, and he was walking barefoot (Sam.15:30). Put your sandals on your feet (Ezek.24:17). Do not come near! Remove your sandals from your feet, for where you stand is holy ground. Your clothes did not fall from you in tatters not your sandals from your feet (Deut.29:5).

New Testament: This term, meaning sandal, occurs only twice in the New Testament. However, there are also several scriptural references (in Paul’s letters) mentioning feet that provide the physical means for spreading good news and glad tidings. Like a humble servant, John the Baptist states that he is not worthy to carry the shoes or unloose the sandals of his master who comes after him. Not surprisingly, Mark, writing to a Roman audience, makes mention of sandals. Peter, upon being released from imprisonment of the Roman army, is told by the angel to put on his sandals.

Scripture:

“They were, however, to wear sandals but not a second tunic.” Mk.6:8

Jesus was telling His disciples to travel with the bare essentials.

“The angel said to him, ‘Put on your belt and your sandals.’ He did so. Then he said to him, ‘Put on your cloak and follow me.'”

The angel was getting Peter out of prison.

Conclusion:

Sandals, Caligula

It is interesting to note that in ancient history, servants (and slaves) were required to carry the sandals of their master. John, Luke, and perhaps Mark were influenced by the Hellenistic traditions. This helps to provide some context in what John the Baptist said about sandals. It was also interesting to discover the meaning (backstory) of Caligula.

It is significant to note that holy ground required clean bare feet.  Washing one’s feet later becomes an important aspect of serving of others demonstrated by Jesus. Jesus illustrates the importance of serving others.

‎[Greek] μανθάνω (manthanō), [Latin] discere: to learn, “to do the math,” to be educated, to receive instruction, to be instructed, to be apprised of, to increase one’s knowledge, to ascertain; Mt.9:13, Mt.11:29, Mt.24:32, Mk.13:28, Jn.6:45, Jn.7:15, Acts.23:27, Rom.16:17, 1Cor.4:6, 1Cor.14:31,35, Gal.3:2, Eph.4:20, Php.4:9,11, Col.1:7, 1Tim.2:11, 1Tim.5:4,13, 2Tim.3:7,14, Tit.3:14, Heb.5:8. Rev.14:3

Christ Washing the Feet of the Disciples: painting by Paolo Veronese (1580)

Background information:

Ancient Greek: This term can mean to direct one’s mind into something and to have accustomed oneself to something. The desire for intellectual knowledge is stressed. This term can be found in ordinary use, philosophical pursuits, and cultic practices. In Homer’s Illiad 6,444, Hektor states “I have learned to be valiant always and fight amid the foremost Trojans.” Plato thought that learning rudimentary knowledge and skills were indispensable for all members of the state. Such necessary subjects included reading, writing, song and music, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and physical education. In the cultic sphere, knowledge is receiving direction from a deity from an oracle.

Old Testament: This term essentially means to learn, to be trained, to teach, and to direct oneself to. The overriding sense of this term belongs in the cultic sphere. God is the object and goal of this term. Such objects include fear of God, the Law, scripture, wisdom, justice, and God’s will. Essentially, this term focuses on aspects of God and His will. The secular aspects of this term refers to learning a trade, getting information from something, and drawing knowledge from a book. The intellectual aspects of this term also focus on God. His sister stationed herself at a distance to find out what would happen to him (Ex.2:4). Lest you learn his ways, and get yourself into a snare (Prov.22:25). I will have them hear my words, that they may learn to fear me as long as they live (Deut.4:10). It was good for me to be afflicted, in order to learn your laws (Psa.118:71). Learn not the customs of the nations (Jer.10:2). I will praise you with a sincere heart as I study your just edicts (Psa.118:7). Take my advice, apply your mind to my words (Sir.16:24).

New Testament: Considering the frequent master/disciple dynamic between Jesus and the disciples, this term occurs only 25 times. Interestingly, the Greek mathetes, meaning disciple, refers to a pupil or learner. The Latin for disciple is discipulus. However, Jesus’ role is not to provide information but to awaken commitment to Him. The disciples are perceived more as followers (acolytes). Aside from ascertaining, learning and understanding are illustrated in various senses. Hearing plays an important role in this reception of this knowledge and faith. Jesus is given knowledge in scripture and understanding of God’s will. Others learn and follow from the example of Jesus. Learning may involve following correct teachings or falling astray.

Scripture:

“It is written in the prophets: ‘They shall all be taught by God.’ Everyone who listens to My Father and learns from Him comes to Me.” Jn.6:45

Jesus states that He and Father are one. Hearing plays a very important part in the beginning of understanding of faith.

“The Jews were amazed and said, ‘How does He know scripture without having studied?’”  Jn. 7:15

Ordinarily children were taught to read and write by means of the scripture. The Jews were very unsettled in seeing Jesus already having this deep knowledge of scripture. They were also wondering how He could also teach like a rabbi.

“Keep on doing what you have learned and received and heard and seen in me.” Php. 4:19

Paul was acting as spiritual father to the Philippians.  Hearing and seeing is very important and instrumental in learning and understanding the faith.  With this comes the responsibility to learn to follow the right path in faith.

Conclusion:

Math, mathematics, discern, disciple

It is interesting to note that intellectual pursuits were highly valued during the ancient Greek era. The Greek tragedy, a very popular dramatic device, explored themes which described the human condition. Plato believed in a well-rounded (kyklos) education. This relates to the modern term encyclopedia.

I am not surprised that the Old Testament culture, in a cultic sense, focused on knowledge and aspects of God. A biblical scholar once stated, “The Greeks learned in order to comprehend, the Hebrews learned in order to adore.”

I was surprised that the New Testament culture did not really focus on the teacher/student relationship between Jesus and the disciples. The disciples were students in an only limited sense. This is interesting in that there are only three references of this term in the gospel of Matthew. The gospel of Matthew is considered a teaching gospel.

Discernment can be a process of learning about one’s vocation. This process can often involve hearing, praying, reading, and learning. Hearing often becomes the first step in learning and understanding.

So, it all adds up. You can do the math! Jesus was trying to set an example for a bunch of uneducated and unprepared students (disciples) to follow Him. Evidently, Jesus did not have much to work with! Jesus perhaps did lecture in some capacity. But His actions spoke volumes in His leading by example.

“Life is a math question. In order to gain the most, you have to know how to convert negatives into positives.”–Anonymous

[Greek] σχίσμα (schisma), [Latin secta]: split, division, gap, schism, rent, separation, dissension, cleft; Mt.9:16, Mk. 2:21, Jn.7:43, Jn. 9:16, Jn. 10:19, 1Cor.1:10, 1Cor.11:18, 1Cor.12:25

Split Rock at Horeb: Moses struck the rock and water welled out to provide drink for the people.

Background Information:

Secular Hellenism: This term, occurring in the natural sciences and philosophy (faith), means what is split, rent, and rift. In botany, this refers to the veins (in a maple leaf) being split off from a single point. In philosophy, Zeus Hypsistos, a sect from 200 BC- 400 AD, made votive reliefs, dedicated to the aspects of this god having to do with personal well-being. In Greek hypsistos means the most high God. The worship of Zeus as Hypsistos is probably Thraican or Macedonian in origin. The Temple of Zeus Hypsistos is located in present day Syria. The Guild of Zeus Hypsistos had rules prohibiting schisms and disagreement at the meal

Old Testament: This term, meaning cave or crevice, is rarely found in its noun form. Its verb form means to tear apart, to split (cut), to tear, and to separate (divide). There are scriptural references to the caves (abyss) of the mountains, and crevices in the cliffs. The other scriptural references allude to an active sense of separating and dividing. Abraham cuts the wood for the burnt offering (Gen.22:3). Eliakim, Shebna, and Joah come to Hezekiah with their garments torn (Isa.36:22). Like a bird flying through the air (Wis.5:11). Judas’ troops retreated from the enemy (1Macc.6:45). The Jordan river was split (Ex.14:21). He cleft the rock and waters welled forth (Isa.48:21). The Mount of Olives will be split in two from east to west (Zech.14:4).

New Testament: This term, found in the gospels and the first book of Corinthians, means a tear (split) and division (social dissension). Examples include a torn cloth and Jesus’ actions (causing division, confusion, dissension, and distrust among the Jews). Paul was addressing dissension and confusion among the Corinthians. The factions (and their respective doctrinal differences) among the Corinthians were not clearly defined. Paul stressed the need for unity in faith in body and mind. This belief in the god of the Most High was widespread in Asia Minor. In Phllippi, Paul encountered an oracle (seer) who proclaimed, “These people are slaves of the Most High God, who proclaim to you a way of salvation.” Paul immediately commanded the spirit to come out of her. The Hypsistarians were  a mixture of God-fearers and Gentiles. This group rejected idols, rejected non-Abrahamic sacrifices, acknowledged the Creator as the Most High, kept the sabbath, and rejected circumcision. In contrast to the Christians, the Hypsistarians refused to call the Creator as Father. Ironically, the Hypsistarians may have contributed to the rapid spread of Christianity in Asia Minor.

Scripture:

“So some of the Pharisees said, ‘This man is not from God, because He does not keep the Sabbath.’ Others said, ‘How can a sinful man do such signs?’ And there was division among them.” Jn. 9:16

Jesus words and actions caused confusion for others. They questioned why Jesus did not keep the Sabbath. They could not understand how He could perform miracles and signs.

“Again there was a division among the Jews because of these words.” Jn.10:19

The Jews were disturbed by Jesus’ actions. Some Jews could not accept His teachings. Some Jews walked away.

“No one patches an old cloak with a piece of unshrunken cloth, for its fullness pulls away from the clock and the tear gets worse.” Mt.9:16

This is a saying of the unsuitability of attempting to combine the old and the new.  Jesus teaching is much greater than Judaism and the Mosaic Law.

Conclusion:

Schism, schismatic, sect

I was surprised that a maple leaf would be used as an example to show splitting and dividing from a point.  I find it quite ironic that the Hypsistarians would later serve as an impetus for the rapid growth of Christianity.

In the wilderness the people were asking Moses, “Give us water to drink.” At the Rock of Horeb, Moses cleft the rock and water welled forth for the people to drink. These grounds were considered holy.

The divisions and dissension in Corinth seem to have become a precursor to the many thousands of churches and denominations today. In fact, today there are over 33,000 churches (and denominations)! Throughout history, in response to the occurrence of questionable doctrinal practices or confusion, the Church leadership often had to convene to clarify or restate proper doctrine. The old torn cloth also relates to pouring new wine into an old wineskin. Since the old wineskin cannot further expand anymore (due to fermentation), it will burst. The old cannot contain the new. Jesus teachings surpass the Old Covenant.

It is time for me to split (depart) from here.

[Greek] ἰατρός (iatros), [Latin] medicus: physician, healer, one who provides healing services; Mt.9:12, Mk.2:17, Mk.5:26, Lk.4:23, Lk.5:31, Lk.8:43, Col.4:14

A Sick Child Brought into the Temple of Aesculapius: painting by John William Waterhouse (1877)

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism:

Primitive views of sickness and healing: About the only thing a primitive man can understand about a physical ailment is receiving a wound in battle. He would view sickness as an attack by an enemy. This enemy would have used evil powers and magic. This primitive person would expect magic would also be needed to overcome this enemy. This begins the historical relationship (association) of medicine and magic.

Medicine and magic: The Greeks were the first culture who established the art of healing in an empirical and rational basis. There still existed a certain mixture of medicine and magic in the treatment of wounds. More established medicine arises from the 6^th century onward. Doctors were publicly appointed. Hippocrates founded famous schools. Under the Roman Empire, the medical sciences developed into medical specialties (eyes, teeth, ears and women’s issues). The skillful doctor was highly esteemed and wealthy. Galen developed his medical practice as a medical writer.

Gods as healers: The gods were perceived as doctors (healers) in a cosmic and universal sense. The gods became mediators between Zeus and men and dispensed healing. The discovery of medical instruments makes it quite certain that doctors took part in the healing procedures at the Aesculapeion (Temple of Ascelpius). On the other hand, sickness was also regarded as a punishment sent by angry gods. Literal uses of the gods’ healing are predominately found in literature.

Pergamum (in Turkey): This is one the Christian communities dealing with pagan worship in the Book of Revelations. The Temple of Ascelpius was located at a sacred spring which was a healing center. This god had the power to raise people from the dead. People flocked to the temple to be cured of their diseases. The sick would spend a night in the temple and the god would visit them in their dreams. The patients would visit the priest in to seek guidance or the cure of the sickness.

Old Testament:

Old Testament views of sickness and healing: Sickness, such as mental sickness, sexual discharge, leprosy, and death, were considered to be unclean manifestations of the demons. There was little understanding of the natural causes of disease. The theology of Yahweh sending or withholding sickness begins to develop. This religious evaluation of sickness is brought into a positive context. To the righteous, a severe affliction indicates a sign of God’s wrath.

God as healer: For the most part, belief in Yahweh completely discredited magic in Israel. The great prophets become precursors to doctors and treatments to help treat wounds. Rules of hygiene are given in the Wisdom literature. The one and only true doctor is Yahweh. Along with man, the priest is put in charge of health in the Torah. Prayer thus becomes the chief means of healing. There is a regular pattern of complaint, petition for healing, and of thanksgiving that God has heard. There is a fluid relationship between hearing of prayer and miraculous healing.

Figurative hearing: Yahweh is generally the One who heals by withdrawing His judgment in the form of sickness or personal (or national) calamity. A prerequisite of healing is the remission of sins, which is in part dependent on repentance and conversion. Healing and remission are closely linked. The crucial thing is the restoration of fellowship with God. In the final analysis, it is God who brings healing.

New Testament:

New Testament views toward sickness and healing: The primitive attitudes still in part currently exist. Sickness also occurs through the actions of demons. Jesus brings this recognition of the connection between sickness and sin. Jesus introduces the idea that sickness and affliction can be used for God’s purposes to illustrate His glory or will. Diseases and handicaps do not contradict God’s plan for creation. Paul’s affliction and parable of the Good Samaritan provide such examples.

Jesus the physician: Figurative healing and literally healing both occur in the gospels. In a figurative sense, closing one’s ears and eyes illustrates lack of understanding. In contrast to the wealth of records and accounts of contemporaneous pagan healing, Jesus’ miracles are based on tradition. In contrast to those gods who demand obedience before healing, Jesus’ miracles demand that faith must be present in order to be healed. In contrast the gods and temples seeking fame and prestige, Jesus’ miracles seek healing and conversion.

Scripture:

“He heard this and said, ‘Those who are well do not need a physician, but the sick do.’” Mt. 8:12

Jesus comes to heal the sick and those who need healing in various ways.

“And a woman afflicted with hemorrhages for twelve years, who had spent her whole livelihood on doctors and was unable to be cured by anyone.” Lk. 8:43

Jesus became aware of this women who touched Jesus. The woman was healed because of her faith.

“Luke the beloved physician sends greeting, as does Demas.” Col.4:14

Luke is a medical doctor.

Conclusion:

Pediatric, geriatric, medical

It was very insightful to understand how the primitive person would view an illness (or ailment). That person who see this as an attack by an enemy. Naturally, that person would also think that magic was involved.

In addition to doctors (and physicians) learning their craft, they would make use of any available magic to heal the sick and wounded. It was interesting to discover that doctors (medical profession) became a very prestigious occupation in the Hellenistic era. A great deal of prestige and fame came along in the healing arts. The god Ascelpius is associated with a serpent and staff. Interestingly, the serpent and still are associated with medical profession even in current times.

It is very significant that the Old Testament culture develops the theology of Yahweh (God) bringing and withholding affliction. This idea is further developed in that healing is associated with repentance and conversion.

The New Testament culture further develops these Old Testament themes. It is also very significant that suffering and affliction is used in positive sense to illustrate God’s glory and God’s will. Paul is such an example. Jesus comes as a healer who does not seek fame or prestige. One can imagine Jesus saying, “I may not be a real doctor, but I know a lot about healing.”

[Greek] θρόνος (thronos), [Latin] sedes, [Latin] requietionis: throne, stately seat, power, seat of authority, chair, chair of a sovereignty, seat of government, Mt. 5:34, Mt.23:23, Act.7:49, Lk.1:52, Rev.2:13, Col.1:16 and others

Queen Bathsheba intercedes and speaks to her son King Solomon on the peoples’ behalf.  Queen Bathsheba becomes the precursor for Mary interceding on our behalf.

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term means seat, chair, sovereignty, power, and authority. This type of seat is generally associated with kings, deities, and gods. However, from the time of Plato, this term can refer to the teaching chair (position) of the philosopher. The royal throne comes from the orient, where the absolute ruler sits on a magnificent throne. The divine throne generally originates from the influence of Zeus. The Greek tragedy, a very popular literary genre, provided a glimpse into the human condition (tragedy) pertaining to men, kings, and gods.

Old Testament: The throne becomes the source of authority for kings, the queen mother, and judicial governors. The king and the throne are closely interconnected. Thrones, such as the throne of David (and Solomon), can exhibit both earthly authority and divine characteristics. The Old Testament concept of the throne of God takes its imagery from the earthly throne. Heaven is the seat of the divine throne. The heavenly throne is characterized by transcendent majesty, eternity, and righteousness.

Petitioning the King in the Old Testament culture: In the court of petitions, the king is seated in his chair of authority. When the Queens enters the room, the king will get up, bows and pays homage to his mother. The Queen Mother, seated in her chair at the king’s right hand, is bestowed the authority to hear the petitions from the people. The Queen then brings these petitions to her son, the king. Essentially, the Queens acts as an intercessor. The king will not refuse her request. In 1Kgs.2:13-19 Adonijah, son of Haggith, pleaded to Queen Bathsheba that she ask her son King Solomon to accept his request to marry Abishag. Queen Bathsheba responded, “Very well, I will speak to the king for you.”

New Testament: This term can mean throne, ruler, supernatural power, authority to rule, and place of ruling. Jesus’ throne in heaven sits at the right hand of God. The vast majority of examples refer to a heavenly throne (God’s throne). In the Canticle of Mary, Mary speaks of the Lord’s power and majesty which can throw down rulers from their thrones. The thrones (dominions and principalities) refer to the supernatural powers and spirits. Satan’s throne resides in Pergamum, one of the communities in the Book of Revelations. Pergamum was faced with emperor worship and pagan worship. The Pergamos cult of Aesculapius, whose symbol was a serpent, claimed medical healings.

Scripture:

“For in Him were created all things in heaven and on earth, the visible and invisible, whether thrones or dominions or principalities or powers.” Col. 1:16

The principalities and powers are of the domain of the supernatural beings and spirits.

“I know that you live where Satan’s throne is, and yet hold fast to my name and have not denied your faith in me, not even in the days of Antipas, my faithful witness, who was martyred among you, where Satan lives.” Rev.2:13

Pergamum, although having received the faith, was dealing with pagan and emperor worship.

“A high priest, who has taken His seat at the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in heaven.” Heb. 8:1

Jesus sits on his throne in heaven.

Conclusion:

Throne, sediment, sedentary, quiet

I did not realize that the idea of a royal throne comes from the eastern traditions. It does makes sense that the Greek tragedies would often focus on kings and thrones. What better way to shed light on politics, power, and the human condition. It is interesting that a chair can be a position of teaching authority. This becomes a precursor to the office (position) of professors and teachers in the modern university. The bishop’s “chair” is called the kathedra. This is where we get the term cathedral, the seat of the bishop’s authority.

The Old Testament culture begins the development of the throne of God, which is a source of righteousness, majesty, and eternity. The throne sheds light on both the King and Queen Mother. The Old Testament provides scriptural support for the role of the Queen Mother as an intercessor (intermediary). The King will honor the Queen Mother’s request. In addition, this idea makes sense in a practical standpoint. Assuming that the king has many wives, which wife would the king choose to sit beside him? Therefore, the honor goes to the Queen Mother.

This is significant in that it provides support for Mary’s role as an intercessor. For the New Testament, this brings into mind the wedding of Cana. It was brought to Mary’s attention that they had no wine. Mary relays this information to her son Jesus. She instructs them, “Do whatever He tells you.”

Catholic perspective: Many Christians are often uncomfortable with the notion of asking Mary for help. These Christians often say that this elevates Mary too much in her relationship with her son Jesus. However, the Old Testament proves that these actions are appropriate. Mary is also the Queen Mother and Mother of God. What better way to reach Jesus than through His Mother! And Jesus will honor His Mother’s request!

[Greek] θώραξ (thōrax): breastplate, armor, trunk; Eph.6:14, 1Thess.5:8, Rev.9:9,17

Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier (thorakitai)

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term can be found in both a literal and metaphorical sense. Throughout history, examples of armor include leather (with metal studs), bronze, and chain mail. Strength and lightness are the two qualities required for good armor. The area of the body between the abdomen and the neck is called the thorax. Aristotle claimed that the thorax encased the mortal soul. The thorax is the seat of courage. The courageous person doesn’t fear an especially noble death in battle.

Old Testament: This is also used literally and metaphorically in the Old Testament. The Phillistine Goliath wore a coat of chain mail. Armor, once exclusively used by the nobility, is later used in the army of Israel. Righteousness is metaphorically identified as a breastplate. Essentially, Yahweh will deploy His righteousness to bring salvation to His community and the nations, and bring the evil to justice. The imagery of armor denotes a battle. Righteousness is understood in an activist sense.

Goliath had a bronze helmet on his head and wore a bronze corselot of scale armor (1Sam.17:5). Then Saul clothed David in his own tunic, putting a bronze helmet on his head and arming him with a coat of mail (1Sam.17:38). There shall be a selvage, woven as at the opening of a shirt (Ex.28:32). He put on justice as a breastplate, salvation, as the helmet on his head; he clothed himself with garments of vengeance, wrapped himself in a mantle of zeal (Isa.59:17).

New Testament: This term is used metaphorically in Paul’s letters and literally in the book of Revelations. A locust’s chest (thorax) is described like an iron breastplate. In 1Thess 5:18 Paul presents the image of the Christian as a soldier of Christ (milites Christi) who must be ready for battle. In Eph.6:14 one must put on the breastplate of faith and love, which comes from Isa.59:17. This Christian attitude provides the right means of protection. Enclosed by this protection, one will be secure against evil spirits and temptation.

Scripture:

“These locusts had chests like iron breastplates.” Rev.9:9

Locusts, like other insects and bugs, are uniquely identified anatomically by their thorax.

“So stand fast with your loins girded in truth, clothed with righteousness as a breastplate.” Eph.6:14

One must adopt the armor of Christian righteousness to protect against evil and temptation.

Thorax, thoractic

Conclusion:

With the development of warfare, there inevitably comes the development (evolution) of armor, leading to chain mail. However, their medical lack of understanding gave way to erroneous conclusions about physical anatomy. The heart was also thought to be the seat of emotions.

It is significant that the Old Testament develops the notion of the breastplate of righteousness. This imagery provides a clear picture of a battle between good and evil.

In the New Testament, Paul further develops this idea as the Christian becoming a soldier of Christ. The Christian needs to wear righteousness as armor in the Christian life.

[Greek] θριαμβεύω (thriambeuō), [Latin] triumphare: to lead in a triumphant procession, to triumph over, to conquest over, to lead in triumph; Col.2:15, 2Cor.2:14

The Emperor welcomes and addresses the Roman triumphal procession (parade)

Background Information:

Roman triumphal procession (triumphus): This term essentially means to triumph over an enemy. When the victorious Roman legions returned from a successful campaign, it was customary to stage an elaborate parade. The general would lead the way, followed by his soldiers. This procession would include floats with live performers depicting various stages of the campaign. Then followed the spoils of war. At the end of the procession were the prisoners of war, shackled in chains. The procession started in the city and lead to the temple.

New Testament: This term does not occur in the Old Testament. This term, meaning to triumph over or to cause to triumph, occurs twice in the New Testament. Jesus’ way of the cross is paradoxically compared to a triumphant Roman procession. Jesus died, descended into hell, conquered death and the grave, and rose again. Like the chained prisoners, the principalities and powers have been defeated. Paul also presents himself as a captive in his role as apostle and ambassador for Christ. Paul, as a Roman citizen, was well aware of the imagery of Roman victorious procession. The Latin for parade is pompa.

Scripture:

“But thanks be to God, who always leads us in triumph in Christ and manifests through us the odor of the knowledge of Him in every place.” 2Cor. 2:14

Jesus’ way of the Cross leads to victory. This provides the imagery of a conquering hero. The odor represents the use of incense commonly used in a triumphal procession.

“He brought you to life along with Him…despoiling the principalities and the powers, He made a spectacle of them, leading them away in triumph by it (Cross). Col.2:13,15

In the triumphal procession, the prisoners are shackled in chains for all to see. Paul also presents himself as a captive for Christ.

Conclusion:

Triumph, triumphant, pomp

I can only imagine the great spectacle and pageantry of a Roman triumphal procession throughout the city. The people would be cheering seeing the spoils of war and shackled prisoners being paraded before them.

Paul was a Roman citizen who would already understand the power of the Roman Empire. It is significant that Paul provides the imagery of a victorious procession. The way of the Cross of Jesus provides a paradoxical illustration of the procession. Paul presents himself as a prisoner being lead on Jesus’ victory procession. In a sense, the one who follows Jesus becomes a slave to Him.

Interestingly, the Latin pompa means parade. Pomp and circumstance originates from Shakespeare’s Othello. Pomp refers to the spectacle, grandeur, and solemnity of an event. Circumstance refers to the details, duties, and responsibility of an event. So pomp and circumstances can be related to a Roman procession.

[Greek] ἀκοή (akoē), [Latin] auditum: acoustics, a hearing, a sense of hearing, rumor, noise, sound, fame, report, ability of hearing, announcement, thing heard, what is heard; Mk.7:35, Rom.10:6, Jn.12:38, Gal.3:2, Heb.4:2, 1Cor.12:17, Mt.4:24, 2Tim4:3,4, Mt.13:14, Act.28:26, Act.17:20, Heb.5:11, Mt. 14:1, Mt. 24:6, Mk. 1:28, Mk. 13:7, Jn. 12:38, 1Thess.2:13, 2Pet. 2:8

A bronze ear was presented to the Asklepion Temple “for the god Asklepios because the ear was healed in a dream.”

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: Commonly used in secular Greek, this term is often used to indicate the ability to hear the gods (and deities) in the Greco-Roman culture. Interestingly, physical images of ears have been used in temples to illustrate communication with the gods. Such use of ears have been found at the Temple of Isis at Pompeii. At the Temple’s back wall, there is a crevice (niche) of Dionysius between two stucco ears. These stucco ears represent the gods’ benevolence in granting petitions in a hearing.

Old Testament: This Greek term, relating to two Hebrew terms, is very common in the Septuagint. This term can take on an active sense (hearing something) or a passive sense (report or rumor). The Hebrew shawmah means to hear, to pay attention, to obey, to consent to, to agree, to request, to be heard, to proclaim, and a sound. The Hebrew shamar means to keep, to observe, to guard, to protect, and to attend to. This examples provide many varied and nuanced senses of hearing. Who would believe what we have heard? (Isa.53:1). And they heard the voice of the Lord. (Gen.3:8). Abraham hearkened unto Ephron (Gen.23:15). Abraham obeyed me, keeping my mandate (Gen.26:5). Keep my commandments (Ex.16:28). He that waits on his master will be honored (Prov.27:18). You shall observe this thing for an ordinance (Ex.12:24).

Book of Revelations: Pergamum was one of the cities mentioned in the Book of Revelations. A letter was written to Pergamum, a community faced with emperor worship and other pagan practices. Asklepios, the god of healing (medicine), would appear in the dreams of those in need of healing. In these dreams, the person would either be cured or hear (receive) medical advice from Asklepios. In addition, the priest would interpret the dream and explain the god’s medical treatment. Interestingly, the writer of Revelations states “whoever has ears ought to hear what the Spirit says to the churches.”

New Testament: This term is also used in both a passive and active sense. The passive sense involves hearing of Jesus’ fame, hearing rumors of war, and hearing of reports (news). The active sense include active hearing, Jesus’ restoring one’s hearing, not paying attention, and having interest or curiosity. God’s word must be a hearing before it becomes a proclamation. Faith comes from hearing. Curiosity, coming from “itchy ears”, appears as wayward actions (and desires) and interest in foreign ideas. In New Testament, the transmission of the faith was primarily accomplished through oral transmission (tradition).

Scripture:

“This faith comes from what is heard, and what is heard comes through the word of Christ.” Rom.10:17

In order for God’s word to be proclaimed, God’s word must first be heard.

“And immediately the man’s ears were opened, his speech impediment was removed, and he spoke plainly.” Mk.7:35

Jesus’ miracle allow the man to hear.

“His fame spread to all of Syria.” Mt. 4:24

Others had heard the message and healings of Jesus.

Conclusion:

Acoustics, acoustic, auditory, auditorium

It was interesting to discover how the human ear, both in stucco and bronze form, can covey the idea of access to the gods. These images provide clear imagery of how to communicate with the gods. In Pergamum, the sick person would also “hear” how to be healed in his dreams.

Hearing takes on an added meaning and dimension in the sense of honoring, keeping, obeying, and attending to. These actions enable one to follow God’s commandments and the Mosaic Law. This idea continues as it applies to Christianity.

It is significant to note that one must first hear what is proclaimed. Faith comes and follows from what is heard. This faith can be then later shared and proclaimed. It is also interesting to note that the Pergamum community was hearing the conflicting messages of both Christianity and paganism. Perhaps it is not a coincidence that the writer of Revelations would say that Pergamum must have the ears to hear the Spirit of God.

This post has helped to remind me that it was necessary first to hear what was proclaimed in the earlier and simple culture. Oral tradition must have played a very important role in the transmission of the Christian faith.  In more recent times, with the advent of social media, the visual element also plays an important role in the transmission of faith. However, we still need to hear about what is going on.

[Greek] ἀγοράζω (agorazō), [Latin] emere, [Latin] mercare: to buy in the marketplace (agora), to purchase the freedom of slaves, to purchase, to redeem, to frequent the marketplace, to do business, to buy or sell, to cause release or freedom of  persons; Mt. 13:44,46, Mt.14:15, Mt.21:12, Mt.25:9, Mt.27:7, Mk.6:36,37, Mk.11:15, Mk. 15:46, Mk.16:1, Lk.9:13, Lk.14:18,19, Lk.17:28, Lk.22:36, Jn.4:8, Jn.6:5, Jn. 13:29, 1Cor.6:20, 1Cor.7:23,30, 2Pet.2:1

Records of manumissions (emancipation) of slaves are etched on the Polygonal Wall at the Temple of Apollo

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism:

Sacral (temple) emancipation of slaves: The Polygonal Wall at the grounds of the Temple of Apollo contains thousands of etched inscriptions recording the freeing of slaves. The slave’s freedom was “purchased” in the pagan temple. Essentially, the god would “buy” the slave to freedom from his owner. The deity negotiated the purchase price for the slave who could not enter into a legal contract. The slave’s freedom was provided (purchased) through the slave’s own funds. The slave deposited the money with the temple priests. The money (purchase price) would be given to the slaveowner. The slave would then obtain his freedom.

Secular emancipation of slaves: Sometimes this transaction was a simple verbal declaration by the master. Other times, a written contract was formed to complete the transaction. Slavery was commonplace in this day and time. If someone wanted to free a loved one (or friend), that person would pay the purchase price to the slave’s master. Then the slave would be granted his freedom.

Old Testament: Leviticus created a series of laws dealing mainly with situations of poverty in which one has to sell land, obtain a loan, or become an indentured servant. Many of these laws are connected with the release of debts in the jubilee year. Regarding the Israelite, when one of their kindred is reduced to poverty, a close family member was responsible for that person’s redemption. This indentured servant was to be viewed not as a slave, but as a laborer or tenant. Servants from other nations are still to be considered as slaves but kindly treated for fear of God.

New Testament: This term essentially means to buy, to sell, and to redeem. Such activity involves business transactions in the agora (marketplace) and selling (and release) of slaves. The agora was the central public space where commerce, arts, sports, spiritual events, and political activity occurred. In addition to the agora, merchants also offered their wares in the Temple grounds. Paul interestingly states that Christians are not free but are the possession of Christ. Paul states that one, being purchased at a price, is being bound to God and Christ. This person’s body is a temple of the Holy Spirit.

Scripture:

“The kingdom of heaven is like a treasure buried in a field, which a person finds and hides again, and out of joy goes and sells all that he has and buys the field.” Mt. 13:44

The kingdom is presented as a simile. The person understands the value of heaven.

“Jesus entered the temple area and drove out all those engaged in selling and buying there. He overturned the tables of the money changers and the seats of those who were selling doves.” Mt.21:12

The buyers and sellers, in selling their wares, were desecrating the Temple grounds.

“You have been purchased at a price, do not become slaves to human beings.” 1Cor.7:23

Paul states, our bodies, which are temples of the Holy Spirit, are not our own. You are bound to God and Christ. A slave called in the Lord is a free person. A free person called to the Lord is a slave to Christ.

Conclusion:

Agora, agoraphobia, emit, emission, merchant

It was very interesting to learn about the manumission (freeing of slaves) in ancient times. I was not aware that sometimes this practice occurred at the temple grounds. The etching of these manumission transactions on the polygonal wall provided a permanent and public record of these events. In a sense, the gods provided a means to allow the freedom of these slaves.

It is significant to note that the Israelites were sometimes permitted to have slaves. But God stresses that they must show compassion and respect for these slaves of foreign nations, since God reminded the Israelites that they too were once in slavery in Egypt.

Evidently, there are many examples of buying and selling in the New Testament culture. Jesus makes His anger known when there is such selling in the Temple grounds. Paul uses slave terminology when he says we are purchased at a price in belonging to God and Christ. In fact, Paul considered himself as a slave of Christ. Christians are not free, but are the possession of Christ. In a sense, God has redeemed us. One is free when he becomes a slave for Christ. Interestingly, this idea relates to the idea of one who loses his life for Christ’s sake will gain his life.

[Greek] πλουτέω (plouteō), [Latin] divites: to be rich, abounding in riches, to become wealthy, to get rich, to be increased with goods, to acquire wealth, to prosper, to be generous; Lk. 1:53, Lk.12:21, Rom.10:12, 1Cor.4:8, 1Cor.8:9, 1Tim.6:9,18, Rev.3:17,18, Rev.18:3.15,19

Plutus, the god of riches, with a cornucopia (horn of plenty)

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: The basic meaning of this term means to fill, to be rich, to be filled, or to have fullness (of goods). Depending on the circumstances (context), wealth can be viewed in terms of monetary value or virtue. In Hesiod’s poem Work and Days, 313, the poet states, “Work is no disgrace, it is idleness which is a disgrace. But if you work, the idle will soon envy you as you grow rich for fame and renown attend on wealth.” Work is honorable. The Greek philosopher Xenophon’s Anabasis 7.7.42 states, “For he who possesses these things (valor, justice, and honor) is rich because many are his friends, and rich because still others desire to become his friends.” Riches (wealth) can also apply to service and ethics. One can conclude that wealth has a certain value for the living of life.

Greek Mythology: The gods Pluto and Plutus are both gods of riches (wealth). Pluto was the ruler of the underworld that contained the seeds for a bountiful harvest. Images of Plutus, found on Greek ceramics, can be identified as the one bearing the cornucopia (horn of plenty). In Aristophanes’ comedy Plutus, Plutus was blinded by Zeus, so that he could dispense his gifts without prejudice. Aristophanes’ comedy provided a commentary on social injustices and unfair distribution of wealth. Plutus is also the guardian of the 4^th circle of hell in Dante’s Inferno.

Old Testament: This term, meaning to become rich, to accumulate, and to grow, helps shed some light on the changing and evolving attitudes toward riches (wealth) in the Old Testament. In the early period, the question of riches was not of paramount concern. Wealth was a measure (indication) of warlike booty, dowries, flocks, servants, and precious stones. Later, the prophets provided a commentary on the social concerns and consequences of accumulating riches. The prophets spoke about forced labor, slavery, deprivation of widows (and orphans), and God’s retribution. In the later period, the Wisdom literature examines the question of riches from a practical standpoint. The Old Testament further develops a theology regarding riches (wealth). Riches can be a spiritual blessing, a source of God’s retribution (judgment), and an earthly impediment (against salvation).

I have made Abram rich (Gen.14:23). Abraham was very rich in livestock (Gen.13:2). Therefore they grow powerful and rich (Jer.5:26). Down go their nobility and their masses (Isa.5:14). The powerful grow poor and hungry but those who seed the Lord lack no good thing (Psa.33:11). The rich man labors to pile up wealth, and his only rest is wanton pleasure (Sir.31:3). The poor man is honored for his wisdom, the rich man is honored for his wealth (Sir.10:30). But the friends of the rich are many (Prov.14:20).

New Testament: Various New Testament writers offer different perspectives on riches (wealth). Mark, Mathew, and Luke focus on the rich person rather than riches. The one who seeks riches (wealth), likened to the seed sown among thorns, faces obstacles in following Jesus. Luke presents examples and illustrations of the rich that are opponents of Jesus. Relying on possessions becomes a hindrance to discipleship. According to Paul, riches denote the being of Christ, the work of God in Christ, and the Word of God in the Christian community. True riches consists in the love which expresses itself in self-sacrificing in following Jesus. Timothy provides a warning against the danger of coveting riches. James provides a warning against the regard for wealth and status in the community.

Scripture:

“The hungry He has filled with good things; the rich He has sent away empty.” Lk.1:53

In her canticle, Mary proclaim the mercy of God who will provide for the lowly.

“Thus it will be for the one who stores up treasure for himself but is rich in what matters to God.” Lk.12:21

Spiritual treasures are long lasting. Earthly material treasures do not last.

“Tell them to do good, to be rich in good works, to be generous, ready to share.” 1Tim.6:18

Paul states one should show an abundance of providing good works (service) toward others.

Post Apostolic Fathers: The Christian communities were facing the complicated issues of being in the world and yet not of the world. Wealth and possessions are God’s gifts. These gifts should be used to serve those in need. Both being rich and poor can be filled with harmful desires. The man who is truly rich is he who is rich, not after the flesh, but in virtues. These riches’ worth is determined by how they are put these into use. This depends again on the attitude or virtue of the one who uses them.

Conclusion:

Pluto, Plutarch, plutocrat, plush, divine

It was interesting to see a serious philosophical discussion about the importance of riches (wealth). This serves to understand riches in terms of human nature, ethics, and service. It is significant that this discussion occurs generally outside of the religious sphere. It was a highly held value to serve the state in some capacity. I never realized that the gods Pluto and Plutus both were gods of riches. In fact, I never really knew that was such a god named Plutus.

It was also interesting to see the evolving attitudes of riches in the Old Testament culture. It is significant that the prophets helped to shed light on how riches (wealth) were accumulated. I did not realize that the Old Testament was already developing the idea of viewing riches in both spiritual and earthly (material) terms.

The New Testament culture further develops certain perspectives toward riches (wealth) in how it can hinder or oppose the gospel message. Paul provides a very unique perspective in how riches come from Jesus and those who follow His example.

The post apostolic Fathers were grappling with the issues in how the Christians, while in the world, can spread the gospel message. This speaks to the attitude and ethics of how one uses riches (wealth) in serving others. It is significant that ethics and service come full circle starting from the secular Greco-Roman world of the Christian communities.

[Greek] γάλα (gala), [Latin] potus, [Latin] lacte: milk, spiritual nourishment, abundance, instruction; 1Cor.3:2, 1Cor.9:7, Heb.5:12-13, 1Pet.2:2

The Milky Way galaxy

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term is used in both a literal and metaphorical sense. Milk, in the Dionysus cult and gnostic religions, takes on a sacramental nature through means of drinking and baptism (immersion). Milk becomes a form of salvation. Philo and Epictetus refer to milk as infant instruction. Epictetus’s Discourses 2.16.39 states, “Some people are never willing to take solid food, but cling to their nurses.” This Stoic philosopher viewed nurses negatively, indicating that there must be weaning from the milk. This term also refers to the Gauls who had pale skin. The Gaul culture was later appropriated by the Roman culture. Latin was adopted by the Gauls.

Old Testament: This term is also used in a literal and metaphorical sense. Milk can refer to animal milk, abundance, prosperity, and blessing. Job refers to times of blessings (good times) when his footsteps were “bathed in milk.” Milk is a characteristic of the holy land with the promise of abundance. The land flowing with milk and honey refers to the abundance and fertility of goats (sheep). Milk flows from the goats’ udders. Honey flows from the abundance of figs. This speaks to the coming of the eschatological marriage. I have come down to rescue them from the hands of the Egyptians and lead them out of that land into a good and spacious land, a land flowing with milk and honey (Ex.3:8). When my footsteps were bathed in milk (Job. 29:6). On that day, the mountains shall drip new wine, and the hills shall flow with milk (Joel 3:18). You shall suck the milk of nations (Isa.60:16).

New Testament: This term is also used in a literal and primarily a metaphorical sense. Milk is presented as spiritual instruction for various reasons. The Corinthians are seen as spiritual infants, unable to handle solid food. Paul speaks of rights as a shepherd using milk from his flock. The Word is provided in contrast to the milk provided by the gnostic religions. However, spiritual milk must be provided because of fleshiness, stubbornness, and immaturity.

Scripture:

“I fed you milk, not solid food, because you were unable to take. Indeed, you are still not able, even now.” 1Cor.3:2

The Corinthians are spiritually immature in their faith. Paul must provide spiritual milk.

Etymology: Milky way comes from the Latin via lactea or from the Greek galaxios kyklos.

Conclusion:

Galaxy, galactic, Gaul, Galatia, potion, lactate

It was interesting to learn that milk was used as a sacramental element in the mystery religions. Philo, a Hellenized Jewish philosopher, believed that soul nourishment should come from school learning, not oral tradition.

It makes sense that land flowing with milk and honey represent abundance, fruitfulness, and fertility. This is seen when goat abundance (fertility) releases milk from the udder. It is also encouraging to see that Job had experienced some happier times.

It is significant that milk is used metaphorically as a means to nourish spiritually immature Christians. Milk becomes a source of spiritual nourishment. Perhaps this milk terminology was used in order to appeal to or reach those involved with the mystery religions.

In his famous 4^th century commentary on St. Paul’s letter to the Galatians, St. Jerome states that the Galatian language was similar to that spoken by a Celtic tribe that he had visited in Gaul.

A galaxy is a cluster of stars, planets, and other interstellar dust. The descriptive milky appearance comes from the appearance from Earth of the galaxy.

[Greek] ἄβυσσος (abyssos): bottomless, very deep, bottomless place, boundless, abyss; Rev. 9:1,2,11, Rev.11:7, Rev.17:8, Rev.20:1,3, Rom.10:7, Lk.8:31

The Angel With The Keys Of The Abyss: (painting by Albrecht Durer 1498)

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term refers to the underworld (place of imprisonment for disobedient spirits). This term is used in later Greek to describe the depths of original time, the primitive ocean, and the world of the dead. In Greek mythology, Tartarus is the deep abyss that is used as a dungeon of torment and suffering for the wicked. This is the place where souls are judged after death. Homer’s Illiad 8:14-16 states “I shall hurl him into Tartarus where is the deepest gulf beneath the earth, as far beneath Hades as heaven is above earth.”

Old Testament: This term refers to the Hebrew term tehom meaning the deep, ocean depths, original floods of water, and depth (interior) of the earth. This term, influenced by Hellenism, refers to the place where spirits are confined. The Hebrew term Abaddon refers to both a bottomless pit of destruction and the angel of the abyss. Abaddon often appears alongside the Greek term Sheol (realm of the dead). The Latin Vulgate refers to the angel of death as destroyer (exterminans).

The earth was without form or shape, with waters over the abyss (Gen.1:2). Even the deep of the seas trembled (Psa.77:17). All the fountains of the great abyss burst forth (Gen.7:11). The deep (Nile) makes it tall (Eze.31:4). They rose to the heavens, sank to the depths (Psa.106:26). The waters began to subside (Gen.8:2). Who guided them through the depths (Isa.63:13). From the water depths of the earth once more raise me up (Psa.71:20).

New Testament: This term, occurring less frequently in the New Testament, does not make a direct reference to water. Instead, this term refers to a deep place, bottomless pit, and prison for spirits. A well-like abyss forms the entrance from which some smokes ascends from hell. God has the power and control over the world of hostile spirits that expresses the idea the abyss is a spirit prison. These evil forces will ultimately be locked in this prison. The abyss also signifies the realm of the dead.

Scripture:

“And they pleaded with Him not to order them to depart to the abyss.” Lk. 8:31

Legion, who possessed the man, pleaded with Jesus not to send the demon to the abyss (demon prison).

“They had as their king the angel of the abyss, whose name in Hebrew is Abaddon and in Greek Apollyon.” Rev. 9:11

The angel of the abyss is the destroyer.

“For if God did not spare the angels when they sinned, but condemned them to the chains of Tartarus and handed them over to be kept for judgment.” 2Pet.2:4

Paul was referring to the false teachers. The false teachers will be punished as severely as the fallen angels.

Conclusion:

Abyss, abysmal, exterminate

It is interesting to note that even mythology can touch upon the truths about evil and morality. Homer, an important poet, makes mention of the chains of Tartarus. Apollyon is the destroyer.

It is not surprising that there would be very many references to water in the Old Testament. The Greek influences on the Old Testament scripture make references to Sheol and Tartarus. Abaddon becomes the Hebrew term for this abyss. The idea of good versus evil becomes a very important theme in the Old Testament.

The New Testament continues this theme of evil. Jesus has control over the demons. The demons also recognize Jesus’ authority. It is significant to note that the false teachers were considered as evil as the fallen angels. It is also interesting to note that 2 Peter references Tartarus. I wouldn’t have associated this with Peter, a Jew.

We all have been in the situation when we have done something abysmal. At first glance, it does not really seem related to an abyss. The first instance of doing something extremely bad or stupid was first coined in 1904. This suggests the “depth” of one’s stupidity or ignorance.

[Greek] ὀρφανός (orphanos), [Latin] pupillos: orphan, parentless, one without parents, desolate, orphaned, fatherless; Jn.14:18, Jas.1:27

The Orphans in Haarlem: (painting by Jan de Bray in 1663)

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term means children orphaned, children abandoned, or without parents. Orphans are illustrated from Plato’s Laws (Dialogues), Euripides’s play Ion, and Homer’s Odyssey. Plato’s Laws X1,926 states “orphan children will undergo a kind of second birth…We must legally appoint Law wards to care for the orphans as their own.” Plato’s Phaedo 116 states “for we felt like he (Socrates) was like a father to us and then when bereft of him we should pass the rest of our lives like orphans.” Euripides’ play Ion involves the story of the orphan Ion in the discovery of his origins. Homer’s Odyssey 20,68 states “their parents the gods had slain, and they were left orphans in the halls.”

Old Testament: This term means orphan, fatherless, abandoned, left, and deprived. The widows and orphans, although defenseless and helpless, were under special legal protection. It was a highly important Old Testament principle to care for orphans (and widows). One who raised up an orphan was considered like a father to that child. It is interesting to note that term “fatherless” (rather than orphan) was consistently used throughout the Old Testament scripture.

New Testament: This term, meaning orphan or friendless person, occurs only twice in the New Testament. Interestingly, these terms both follow the Old Testament command to protect widows and orphans. This command originates from the Hebrews’ experience as aliens in Egypt. In addition, this fulfills the command in Deuteronomy not to violate the rights of the widows and orphans. Although Jesus will leave the disciples in His return to heaven, He will not abandon them. Jesus will ask the Father to send the Holy Spirit (Advocate) to be with them always. Jesus also states He lives in them and they are in Him.

“I will not leave you orphans; I will come to you.” Jn.14:18

Jesus was intending to finish His mission on earth and return to the Father. Jesus states He will not abandon His disciples.

“Religion that is pure and undefiled before God and the Father is this: to care for orphans and widows in their affliction and to keep oneself unstained by the world.” Jas. 1:27

This scripture follows the Old Testament command to care for the widows and orphans.

Orphanages: The Romans formed the first orphanages around 400 A.D. The orphanotrophium was an ancient orphanage. Zostikos was the first director of the orphanage in Constaninople.  Zostikos was eventually martyred by a subsequent Emperor. St. Zostikos will be later eventually known as the Feeder of the Orphans. The orphanage becomes firmly established under the rule of Justinian. Justinian declared that children are to be free, are entitled to have an education, and to be exempt from slavery.

Conclusion:

Orphan, orphanage, pupil

I am not surprised that the issue of orphaned children would appear in various genres, fields, government, and sciences. This is an important issue in any era. It is interesting to note that the Greco-Roman state did make provisions for orphaned children.

Every Old Testament scripture passage mentioned “fatherless.”  In this culture, it was very important to have a father to carry on the family name. It was also interesting to learn about the Old Testament command to care for widows and children.

The New Testament continues this Old Testament command. Not surprisingly, there are similar qualities and aspects of the master/disciple relationship between the Greco-Roman culture and the New Testament culture. I would say that possibly Socrates and Jesus would have felt the same way toward their respective disciples.

Harlem, one of the New York City’s buroughs, is named after the city of Haarlem in the Netherlands. Harlem was originally started as a Dutch village, established in 1658.

[Greek] παράκλησις (paraklēsis), [Latin] exhortatio, [Latin] consolatio, [Latin] exhortare, [Latin] solacium: a calling beside, consolation, encouragement, comfort, solace, exhortation, appeal, earnest request, a calling to one’s aid, a calling near; Lk.2:25, Lk.6:24, Act.4:36, Act.9:31, Act.13:15, Act.15:31, Rom.12:8, Rom.15:4,5, 1Cor.14:3, 2Cor.1:3-7, 2Cor.7:4,7,13, 2Cor.8:4, 2Cor.8:17, Php.2:1, 1Thess.2:3, 2Thess.2:16, 1Tim.4:13

The Holy Spirit (Paraclete): painting by Corrado Giaquinto (1750)

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term refers to the act of calling someone to oneself. The one called is led back to the one who calls. This is a request for help, consolation, encouragement, and exhortation. Such examples include military assistance, legal support, affirmation (encouragement) from the gods, psychological advice (support), and literary skills.

Counselors: In Herodotus Histories VII,158 the historian states, “I am ready to send to your aid 20,000 men at arms.” In Discourse I, 27, the Stoic philosopher Epictetus states, “If I had suit even about a bit of land, I would call another to defend my interests.” In Epictetetus’ Discourse III,21, he states, “he must know that he is sent a messenger from Zeus to show them that they have wandered.” In Epictetus’ Enchiridion, the philosopher, holding the official consoler office (officium consolandi), uses his wisdom to provide counsel to bereaved and mourning persons. The philosopher states, “When someone treats you badly or says bad things about you, remember that this person acts or speaks in this way because he or she thinks that it is right or required that he or she speak or act that way. Poets would also be commissioned to write consoling poems.

Old Testament: This term, having both divine and human qualities, means counselor and consolation. The true consolation comes from the heart of God alone. Examples of human consolation include Israel, teachers, shepherds, prophets, fathers and mothers. The duty of human comforting falls upon close relatives, pupils, colleagues, teachers, neighbors, prominent citizens, and leaders. Forms of comforting etiquette applies to visits, burials, houses of mourning, trips, and letters (when traveling is not feasible). Hellenistic Judaism speaks to the hope that God has sown in the human race. Palestinian Judaism speaks to the promise of the Messiah who brings the consolation of Israel.

David sent his servants with condolences to Hanun for the loss of his father (2Kg.10:2). They met and journeyed together to give him sympathy and comfort (Job.2:11). I will give full comfort to them and to those who mourn for them (Isa.57:18). We have for our encouragement the holy books that are in our possession (1Macc.12:9). I too will write them encouraging words (1Macc.10:24). Fear not, Jerusalem, He who gave you your name is your encouragement. In Jerusalem you shall find your comfort (Isa.66:13).

New Testament: This term means exhortation (strong warning), encouragement, comfort, and consolation. The church of Macedonia, inspired by God’s grace, earnestly sought to help the holy ones. The Council of Jerusalem made an exhortation that the Gentiles were not bound by the restrictions of the Mosaic Law. Paul calls upon the church communities to provide encouragement and to share in the struggles of others. Simeon was awaiting the consolation of Israel with the coming of Jesus. Paraklesis is used in the prayer of intercession addressed to the Virgin Mary. The Holy Spirit is also referred to as the Paraclete. It is often times that we call upon (ask) the Holy Spirit to intercede for us.

“The churches of Macedonia begged us insistently for the favor of taking part in the service to the holy ones.” 1Cor.8:4

The churches of Macedonia, although struggling in affliction and poverty, felt moved to help others. The churches were inspired by God’s grace.

“When the people read it, they were delighted with the exhortation.” Act.15:31

The Council of Jerusalem stated that the Gentiles were not bound by the restrictions of the Mosaic Law (aside from idol sacrifices and improper marriage). The council’s exhortation was church dogma.

“This man Simeon was righteous and devout, awaiting the consolation of Israel.” Lk.2:25

The Jews were awaiting for the Messiah for the redemption (consolation) of Israel. The birth of Jesus brings these hopes to fulfillment.

Conclusion:

Paraclete, consolation, consoling, exhortation, solace

It was very interesting to see the many examples of advocates (intercessors) in the Greco-Roman culture. This idea can extend to providing expertise and experience in a given field or science. The philosopher was called upon by the state to provide wisdom and guidance for those experiencing struggles. The lawyer, as a legal advocate, represents the interests of the defendant in the courtroom.

It is significant to note that human nature (grief) has remained constant throughout history, regardless of culture or technology. The coming of the Messiah was very important in providing the consolation of the Jewish people. The scriptures (sacred books) were also a source of comfort for the Hebrews (Jews). It was a great honor for a man to be called the “one who consoles the sorrowing.”  The Bible also speaks of a fleeting and futile comfort in goods and riches. Alms can be a great comfort before God.

There are many examples of interceding and advocating in the New Testament culture. Paraklesis involves asking for help, exhortation (calling in the name of the Holy Spirit), and consoling others. This request or invocation in prayer is also influenced by the Old Testament notion of salvation history (divine aid). This helps to shed some light in understanding how the new Christian Church grew and developed.

Many Christians mistakenly think that Catholics “worship” Mary. Mary has a very close connection with her Son Jesus. It is only natural that one can call upon Mary to bring our petitions to Jesus. Mary becomes an important intermediary for us. The wedding at Cana provides scriptural support for Mary’s role as a mediator.

[Greek] ποτίζω (potizō), [Latin] potitare: to provide a drink (something potent), to furnish, to drink, to irrigate, to water, to offer a drink, to nurture with water, to give a drink, to make a drink, to feed, to imbibe; Mt.23:35, 1Cor.3:6-8, Mk.9:41, Mt.10:42, Mt.25:35,37,42, Rom.12:20, Mk.15:36, Mt.27:48, Lk.23:36, Jn.19:29, 1Cor.3:2, 1Cor.12:13

The ancient Greco-Roman symposium (drinking party): a precursor to the modern corporate (business) symposium

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term means to cause to drink, to give to drink, and to water. This term can be found in various disciplines and fields such as literature, science, and medicine. Hippocrates’ Aphorism makes note of aspects in drinking in a long series of symptoms, diagnosis, and healing arts. Aristotle is credited with associating spirits with distilled alcohol. He thought drinking a distilled beer or wine puts ‘spirits’ into the body of the drinker. The Symposium, a Socratic dialogue written by Xenophon, describes Socrates and his companions attending a symposium. In Symposium 2,25 Socrates states, “So far as drinking is concerned, for wine does of a truth ‘moistens the soul’ and lulls our griefs to sleep.” Drinking makes the symposium successful in that alcohol effectively releases the inhibitions of the participants.

Old Testament: This term relates to several Hebrew terms. Gama means to absorb literally or figuratively in the sense of soaking up distance. Nashah means to cast out metal or to pour out a libation. Shaqah means to give a drink, to moisten, or to water. This term provides the sense of joining together or quenching a thirst. The Old Testament mentions providing one’s enemy with food and drink (Prov.25:21). Let me, I pray, drink a little water from the pitcher (Gen.24:17). He swalloweth the ground with fierceness and rage (Job.39:24). He poured a drink offering on it (Gen.35:14). For the Lord had poured out upon you the Spirit (Isa. 29:10). They shall not offer a wine offering to the Lord (Hos.9:4). A river went out of Eden to water the garden (Gen.2:10). They came out to draw water and fill the troughs to water their father’s flock (Ex.2:16). Hi figure is full and nourished (Job.21:24). She opened a jug of milk for him to drink (Jgs.4:19).

New Testament: This term essentially means to give (or offer to drink) and to water. These examples are illustrated by providing drink, offering cold water, providing wine, and providing milk. Providing cold water gives refreshment and compassion which will find an eternal reward. Providing food and drink to the hungry (and thirsty) is a value held highly by Jesus. Apollos waters the spiritual seed sown by Paul. Jesus receives and drinks His final cup of wine finishing His Passover, leading to His death on the cross.

Scripture:

“I fed you milk, not solid food, because you were unable to take it. Indeed, you still are not able, even now.” 1Cor.3:2

Paul states that the Corinthians are fleshy and immature infants who are not yet ready to receive solid spiritual teachings.

“Rather, if your enemy is hungry, feed him; if he is thirsty, give him something to drink for by doing do you will heap burning coals on his head.” Rom. 12:20

Paul claims it is important to confound your enemy with kindness. Your kindness will force your enemy to remember his shame in treating you with harm.

“I planted, Apollos watered, but God caused the growth.” 1Cor.3:6

Paul and Apollos are both instruments for God. Apollos, a Jew from Alexandria, was very effective in planting the spiritual seen sown by Paul.

Conclusion:

Potion, potent

I think it goes without saying that drinking often intersects many aspects of daily life: sciences, business, and recreation. These philosophers, scientists, and playwrights may have not known all about the physical aspects of drinking. Literature often illustrates human nature and behavior regarding drinking. I think Xenophon perfectly illustrates how drinking (wine and other spirits) can release (relax) one’s inhibitions.

I was surprised about the many and varied uses of this term in the more simple Old Testament culture. This is unexpected in comparison to the more complex and cosmopolitan Greco-Roman culture.

Providing food and drink for the needy person was a highly held cultural value in the New Testament. The figurative and metaphorical senses of drinking and watering help to shed light on the effectiveness (or lack thereof) of imparting Christian values to the communities Paul visited.

Symposium means drinking together or drinking party. This becomes the precursor for the modern day symposium in the business and corporate sector. Business men (and women) gather together to discuss some important topic in their respective field.

[Greek] πειράζω (peirazō), [Latin] experiri, [Latin] temptare, [German] prufen, [French] toucher, [French] essayer: to explore, to test, to try, to examine, to attempt, to prove, to put to the test, to go about, to make proof of, to learn, to strive, to make an effort, to lead into temptation, to put someone to the test, to know by experience, to test the truth of, to try someone; 42 scriptural references

St. Boniface (675-754 A.D), was knowing for spreading the faith in Europe during the Dark Ages. He also alludes to the difficulties of the Church in his time. Like today, the Church is also going through stormy waters ever since Vatican II. It seems now that Tradition can only right this wayward ship (the Church.)

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term is used in a variety of ways in secular Greek. This term means to attempt, to strive, to make an effort, to put to the test, to lead into temptation, to stir up, to try someone, to test a thing, and to know by experience.

Homer’s Illiad 2:8: “Bid him arm the long-haired Achaeans with all speed, since now he may take the broad-wayed city of the Trojans.”

Herodotus’ The Histories 6.82: “He thought it best not to make any attempt on the city until before he learned from the sacrifices whether the god would deliver it to him or withstand him.”

Homer’s Odyssey 9.281: “So he spoke, tempting me, but he trapped me not because of my great cunning, and I made answer again in crafty words.”

Old Testament: This term means to test, to try, and to attempt.

Testing:

1. This is used in a secular and a primarily spiritual sense.
2. The important theme of testing is illustrated by God testing man, man testing God, and man being tested by Satan.
3. God puts Abraham’s faith and obedience to the test. Abraham withstands the test by obeying the will of God.
4. Adam and Eve fail as result of being tempted (tested) by the serpent. This leads to the story of the fall in Genesis.
5. Job ultimately submits to God’s will in the midst of incomprehensible suffering.
6. In the Wisdom books, the purpose of God’s testing is further illustrated and defined.
7. Testing (and suffering) can provide instruction, trust, refining, purification, education, and eschatological redemption.

New Testament: Like the Old Testament, this term can be used in a secular and spiritual sense. The three predominant testing themes are man being tempted, man tempting God, and Jesus being tempted. Testing (and suffering) attains greater meaning and purpose in God’s providence. When one undergoes suffering, one will not be tried beyond their endurance. Testing and suffering allows one to share in Christ’s suffering and to experience joy, grace, and blessing in the midst of difficulties.  Man often defies God by tempting the Holy Spirit and imposing unnecessary restrictions. Jesus was also tempted during His life on earth. This provides encouragement to those who are also experiencing temptations in life.

Notable scripture:

Acts 5:9: To test the Holy Spirit

Acts 5:10: Putting God to the test

Acts 16:7: The Spirit of Jesus did not allow them

Acts 24:6: He tried (attempted) to desecrate the Temple

2Cor. 13:5: Examine yourselves to see whether your are living in faith

Jas. 1:13: Being tempted by God

Jas. 1:14: Each person is tempted when he/she is lured and enticed by his/her desires

Conclusion:

Empirical, empiric, experience, proof, tempt, temptation, touch, essay

I was surprised by the many varied and nuanced examples of testing. It was interesting to see how this idea also occurs in the sphere of the gods and oracles. Even man will often test the gods and oracles. This becomes a precursor to man testing God in the Old Testament.

I think it is quite significant that the Old Testament begins the development of the understanding of testing and suffering. This provides some insight and meaning for testing and suffering that God permits. Abraham provides an important illustration of this. Other examples provide purpose of God’s testing.

The New Testament culture further develops this understanding of testing and suffering. In some situations, testing and suffering can be a participation in Christ’s sufferings, a joy, and a grace. Jesus’ suffering, death, and resurrection provide a profound meaning for suffering.

Empirical evidence is based on experiment, observation, and practical experience. Perhaps it is providential that I first started looking at this term this past Good Friday. The empirical evidence has shown that I have experienced much testing and struggles in my life! Perhaps it is not surprising that 1Cor.10:13 is one of my favorite scriptures.

I have never been good on trust, always needing to work on this. It’s often like “God, you’re killing me! Why are you taking so long to help me!” I have always been a moderate optimist (or pessimist), expecting the worst but hoping for the best. But at the end of the day, I am often reminded that there are so many others out there who are in more difficult situations that I am in.

It is very important to note that sinning against the Holy Spirit is the only unforgivable sin.

Update: Each of us must examine ourselves in whether or not we are living in faith.

We now have politicians, celebrities, and other influential persons who champion abortion rights.

We now have a president who claims to be a “faithful Catholic”.

[Greek] μυέω (mueō), [Latin] mutare: to shut the eyes or mouth, to initiate into a mystery (musterion), to instruct, to learn the secrets, to teach; Php. 4:12

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term means to initiate (be initiated) into the mysteries and to be instructed in. The closed eyes and closed mouth do not signify blindness or muteness. Instead, these actions indicate secrecy and silence. Herodotus’ Histories II,51  states, “Whoever has been initiated in the rites of the Cabeiri, which the Samothracians learned from the Pelasgians and now preach, understand what my meaning is.” Plato, an initiate into the mysteries, states, “Our mysteries had a very real meaning, he that has been purified and initiated shall dwell with the gods.” Herodotus Histories VIII, 65 states “Every year the Athenians observe this festival. The voice you hear is the “Iacchus” they cry at the festival. Keep silent and tell this to no one else.”

Old Testament: In contrast to the monotheistic worship of God (Yahweh), the mysteries are often associated with worship of gods, goddesses, and idols. The apocryphal book 3 Maccabees was written in response to the crisis affecting Egyptian Jews, when Egypt was made a Roman province in 24 B.C. An edict was made that the Jews were to be enslaved and branded with the ivy leaf of Dionysus. The alternative is to forsake their Hebrew faith and undergo initiation into the mysteries. Moses instructs the Israelite judges to kill those men who have submitted to the rites of Baal of Peor.

New Testament: This term, meaning to learn a secret, occurs only once in Philippians. Generally, the Hellenistic notion of the mysteries were considered as esoteric knowledge only available to a few people. Paul illustrates he has learned the secrets (mysteries) of Christ from his own daily life. Unlike the Hellenistic mysteries, these Christian mysteries can be available to all who seek these. Paul contrasts Christianity with these pagan religions. In other words, Paul undergoes the mysteries, experiencing the power of Christ.

Scripture:

“I know the indeed how to live in humble circumstances; I know also how to live with abundance. In every circumstance and in all things I have learned the secret of being well feed and of going hungry, of living in abundance and of being in need.” Php. 4:12

Paul makes a distinction between the Christian faith and the pagan religions. The message of Christ is available to all.

Conclusion:

Mystery, mysterious, mute

It is interesting that this activity involved shutting or closing. I was somewhat surprised that even the learned and wise philosophers and writers were devoted to the gods. The gods served to guide men in their daily affairs.

It is not surprising that the monotheistic Old Testament culture would be profoundly opposed to the mysteries of religions and cults. 3 Maccabees illustrates the persecution that some Jews had faced concerning the mysteries of other religions.

Unlike the pagan mysteries, Christianity is available to all. In the Roman empire, a soldier would give an oath (sacramentum) of fidelity to his superior. In a sense, the soldier’s oath was a sign of the beginning of new life in his purpose.

Over time, the meaning of the mysteries would change. In the third century, mysterion would be identified with the Christian sacraments (baptism and the Eucharist). St. Augustine described a sacrament as an outward and visible sign of an inward and invisible grace. There is a mysterious aspect of the Christian sacraments. When one becomes baptized, that person also becomes a new creation in the Christian life.

[Greek] πραγματεύομαι (pragmateuomai), [Latin] negotiari: to busy oneself, to do business, to occupy, to trade, to put capital to work, to be engaged in business; Lk.19:13,15

The public Agora in Delos Greece where merchants sold their wares

Background information:

Greek Hellenism: This term means to pursue with vigor, to render political service, to seek intellectual pursuits, and to conduct business affairs. It was quite prestigious to have an opportunity to serve the state or be charged with affairs of state. In a military context, this term refers to occupy or seize a territory. Various philosophers and playwrights explored aspects of political affairs and business practices.  Polybius’ Histories was primarily concerned about how ancient Rome achieved such power. Polybius concluded Rome’s success was based on the mixture of democracy, autocracy, and monarchy. Strabo’s Geography illustrated that the Temple of Aphrodite was so rich, that it had more than 100 temple slaves, courtesans, and attendants. The city was so crowded with people and that it grew rapidly.

Old Testament: This term is related to the Hebrew asah which means to do business, to accomplish, to make, and to finish. This term also refers to property gained as a result of labor, business, industry, and workmanship. This also refers to the work that God accomplishes in Genesis. This Hebrew term is tied to melakah, meaning occupation, business, or skilled work. Melakah also means ambassador, messenger, or minister, indicating a position. On six days work may be done (Ex.35:2). Anyone who works on the Sabbath day shall be put to death (Ex.32:15). On the seventh day God completed the work He had been doing (Gen.2:2). On the first of these days you will have a declared holy day; you shall do no heavy work (Lev.23:7). Over the farm workers who tilled the soil was Ezri (1Chr.27:26). Some went off to sea in ships, plied their trade on the deep waters (Psa.107:23).

New Testament: This term is only found in Luke 19:13,15, meaning to do business and to make a profit. An emporos (merchant) is one who is on a journey (poros). This person is a trader, selling his wares. The emporium is the place where merchandise is sold. The parable of the ten gold coins stresses the importance of the stewardship of the gifts that one receives. It is more important to bear fruit (profit) and show generosity.

Scripture:

“He called ten of his servants and gave them ten gold coins and told them, ‘Engage in trade with these until I return.’” Lk. 19:13

This parable illustrates the importance of stewardship of these gifts in which one receives.

“But when he returned after obtaining the kingship, he had the servants called, to whom he had given the money, to learn what they had gained by trading.” Lk. 19:15

The ability to distribute wealth is based according to one’s abilities. What one receives, these gifts must not be wasted, neglected, or diminished.

Conclusion:

Pragmatic, pragmatism, negotiate, negotiator, pragmatist

For the individual, it was a highly held value to serve the state in some capacity. Much prestige came along with this type of position. I can also image the wealthy and influential person who would have the time and luxury to pursuit the arts and other hobbies. Philosophers would also pursue their intellectual interests.

The concept of work was very important since the beginning of God’s creation. But work was forbidden on the Sabbath. In the simple Old Testament culture, work was illustrated by craftsmen and skilled trades. However, the New Testament culture sheds light on the precursor to the modern merchant and businessman. Profit becomes important in light of the efficiency, effectiveness, and generosity of the merchant.

A pragmatist is one who is guided by practical considerations rather than by ideals. The merchant or business is a perfect example of a pragmatist who runs his business (practice).

‎[Greek] ζυγός (zygos), [Latin] iugum: a yoke, a pair of scales, a coupling, a bond, a servitude, a submission; Mt.11:29-30, Act. 15:10, Rev.6:5, Gal.5:1, 1Tim6:1, Act.15:10, Mt.23:4

Oxen yoked together

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term essentially means a pair of scales or a yoke. Plato’s Republic considered this as the character and order of the city-state. Plato stated, “And so, as time goes on, and they advance in their pursuit of wealth, the more they hold that in honor, they less they honor virtue. May not the opposition of wealth and virtue be conceived as if each lay on a scale?” The Zygos mountain range in Greece, in the east region of the Metsovo, is derived from its mountain pass which looks like a saddle. Libra is the seventh astrological sign of the zodiac. This sign is depicted by the golden scales. Justice was considered a deity.

Old Testament: This term refers to both scales and a yoke in various literal, metaphorical, and figurative senses. Scales are represented by means of division, measuring, judgment, justice, and suffering. God is often presented as the ultimate authority of justice. However, Job’s sufferings cannot be weighed. The image of the yoke is commonly found in the Old Testament. The yoke is illustrated as political control (tyranny), personal authority, nations’ control over others, morality, and liberation (deliverance). The yoke is often related to one’s personal destiny (God’s will). Then take a set of scales and divide the hair you have cut (Ezek.5:1). Who has held in a measure the dust of the earth, weighed the mountains in scales (Isa.40:12). But the words of the prudent are carefully weighed (Sir.21:25). Let God weigh me in the scales of justice (Job 31:6). You shall throw off his yoke from your neck (Gen. 27:40). Discipline your son, make heavy his yoke (Sir. 30:13). It is good for a man to bear the yoke from his youth (Lam.3:27). Long ago you broke your yoke, you tore off your bonds (Jer. 2:20).

New Testament: This term, meaning both yoke and balance, predominately occurs  as a yoke. The third rider of the Apocalypse, riding on a black horse, holds a scale in his hand. This scale measures or weighs scarcity and hunger as a preliminary sign of the impending judgment. The yoke is presented as the bonds of slavery (servitude) and the restrictions placed under the Jewish law. The newly formed Christians seek to be released from the laws, regulations, and restrictions under the Mosaic Law. Jesus speaks to those other who also bear (carry) a yoke. Jesus states His yoke is light. Those who choose to carry His yoke accept the gift and faith of Jesus in His Word and person.

Scripture:

“When he broke open the third seal, I heard the third living creature cry out, ‘Come forward.’ I looked, and there was a black horse, and its rider held a scale in his hand.” Rev.6:5
The third rider of the Apocalypse holds a scale which measures or weighs scarcity and hunger in the impending judgment.

“Those who are under the yoke of slavery must regard their masters as worthy of full respect, so that the name of God and our teaching may not suffer abuse.” 1Tim.6:1

Even slaves, under the yoke of slavery, must show respect to their masters. The slaves’ actions and behavior must be worthy of Christ.

“Take my yoke upon you and learn from me, for I am meek and humble of heart; and you will find rest for yourselves. For my yoke is easy, and my burden light.” Mt.11:29

Jesus is speaking to all those people are bearing (carrying) some form of yoke.  Slaves were carrying the yoke of servitude.  Many others (including Christians) were under the restrictions of the Jewish Law.

Conclusion:

Zygote, -zygeous, jugular

It was interesting to discover how a pair of scales serve to provide a comparison or a basis between one subject to another. I was already familiar with zodiac sign Libra with the scales. However, I did not know the significance of the scales.

I was quite surprised by the extensive uses of scales and yokes in the Old Testament. Both play significant roles in defining the relationships between God, man, and nations. Yokes play an important role in defining control, domination, and liberation.

It was important to learn how yokes help to define slavery, servitude, and subjection to regulations. It is significant that Jesus spoke to all those who were already carrying their own specific yokes (burdens). By comparison, Jesus show His yoke is light in following and accepting Him.

A zygote results from the fusion (joining) of the ovum and sperm cell. Terms ending in –zygous have zygotes “yoked” from a specific zygote. The Latin iugum means yoke. The iugulum is the neck upon which the yoke (collar) is placed. Hence, this where we get the jugular vein.

[Greek] ζέω (zeō), [Latin] fervere: to have great fervor, to show enthusiasm, to boil, to seethe, to be hot, to be earnest, to be jealous, to envy; Act. 18:25, Rom. 12:11

Zeus throws glowing thunderbolts from Mt. Olympus

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term, indicating kinetic movement and energy, means to well up, to bubble, to boil, and to glow. This movement can be illustrated by the raging sea, fermenting wine, and boiling water. Homer’s Illiad mentions water boiling in a bronze cauldron. Objects, when their molecules are agitated, will start to glow. Hesiod mentions Zeus throwing glowing thunderbolts from Mount Olympus. In addition to its literal use, this term can be presented in a metaphorical sense. Aristotle defines anger (intense emotions) as a painful desire for revenge caused by a real or apparent slight.

Old Testament: This specific related Hebrew term is infrequently used in the Old Testament. Interestingly, ordinary objects are used (illustrated), leading to unfortunate, or unsettling results. Such examples include spoiled manna, fermenting wine, a seething pot, and a boiling cauldron. A burst wineskin leads to spilled wine. These items relate to Moses’ displeasure, Job’s anger, judgment of Israel, and rage. The manna became wormy and rotten. Therefore, Moses was displeased with them (Ex.16:20). Like a new wineskin under new pressure, my bosom is ready to burst (Job.32:19). Then pile the wood beneath the pot; bring it to a boil these pieces and joints that are in it (Ezek.24:5). O bitter was that day- and yet not bitter- when that bitter tyrant of the Greeks quenched fire with fire in his cruel cauldrons, and in his burning range brought those seven sons of the daughter of Abraham to the catapult and back again to more torture (4 Macc.17:20).

New Testament: This term, used only twice, refers to the welling or bursting out in a positive sense by the Holy Spirit. This sense is related to the idea of wine bursting from an old wineskin (Mk.2:22). One does not pour new wine into an old wineskin. The old wineskin, already stretched, cannot contain the additional fermentation produced by the new wine. Therefore, the old wineskin bursts. As a result, both wine and wineskin are ruined. These scripture refers to being stirred up by the Holy Spirit to use one’s talents (abilities) to promote the gospel as a Christian.

Scriptures:

“Do not grow slack in zeal, be fervent in Spirit, serve the Lord.” Rom.12:11

It is the duty (responsibility) to fully develop their energy, talents, and abilities as Christians.

“Apollos had been instructed in the Way of the Lord and, with ardent Spirit, spoke and taught accurately about Jesus, although he knew the only the baptism of John.” Act. 18:25

Reference is made to Apollos’ natural gifts in the previous scripture. It is the Holy Spirit who allows Apollos to teach accurately.

Conclusion:

Zeal, zealous, zealotry, zealot

I am not surprised that in the Greek Hellennistic era, this term would be conveyed in a variety of ways. This is illustrated by the many philosophers and writers (playwrights). The Greek tragedy was a very important venue which provided a important spotlight on the human condition.

It is interesting to note that ordinary objects and items were used in scripture to convey misfortune, disaster, and trouble. Most notably, this is illustrated when new wine is put in an old wineskin. The old wineskin, unable to contain the new wine’s fermentation, will burst.

I think it is important that scripture alludes to one’s own natural gifts, talents, and abilities. Quite often it is by the stirring of the Holy Spirit that these gifts burst out of the person. It is the duty of the Christian to fully develop their energy, abilities, and talents in order to serve the Lord.

[Greek] λύω (luō), [Latin] solvere: to loosen, to destroy, to dissolve, to forgive, to melt, to put off, to release, to prevent, to break, to set free, to undo, to untie; Mk.1:7, Lk.13:15, Act.27:41, Eph.2:14, Act.13:43, Mt. 5:1, Jn.5:18, Mt. 16:19, 1Jn.4:3, Act. 2:24, 1Jn.3:8, Mt. 18:18, Jn. 20:23, 1Cor.7:39, Rom.7:2, Lk. 19:30, Mt. 21:2, Jn. 11:4, Mk. 11:2

 The Accolade (painting by Edmund Leighton in 1901): the queen binds the nobleman’s allegiance toward her.

Background Information

Secular binding and loosing: This term is part of the common expression indicating the power (authority) to bind and to release. This expression takes on various meanings, dependent on the time and context in history. Binding and loosing can mean releasing or placing a criminal in prison. Barons (and knights) often would publicly their give their allegiance to their reigning master (king, queen, prince, regent, etc.). Likewise, the master could also have the authority to release his binding authority over the serf. In other words, free the serf.

Old Testament: Loosing refer to several Hebrew terms. This meaning can refer to taking up, carrying off, divesting, clearing away, untying, hiding, removing, destroying, opening, engraving, pleasing, satisfying, unraveling, freeing, and separating. Binding and loosing go hand in hand with authority. The Jews would have understood that this person (David’s prime minister), who holds the keys, would have this authority. The keys controlled access into the temple of David. According to the Rabbis (and Jews), binding and loosing also involved providing and blocking access to the temple (and synagogue), and interpreting and judging rules, laws, obligations, and practices. Essentially, the major aspects of binding and loosing become forbidding and permitting. I will gird him with your sash, confer on him your authority. I will place the key of the House of David on his shoulder; what he opens, no one will shut, what he shuts, no one will open. (Isa.22:21-22). When you build a new house, put a parapet around the house (Deut.22:8). In every case of dishonest appropriation, the claim of both parties shall be brought before God (Ex. 22:8). Remove your sandals from your feet (Exo.3:5). The Lord your God will clear away the nations before you (Deut.7:22). The king sent and released him (Psa.105:20). That He would would loose His hand and cut me off (Job.6:9). It is He who reveals the profound and hidden things (Dan.2:22).

New Testament: This term, essentially meaning to loosen, is shown in various meanings and senses. Such examples of loosing include untying, setting free, destroying, dismissing, transgressing, permitting, doing away with, putting an end to, releasing, and forgiving. This loosing and binding authority continues in the New Testament. The Pharisees would have bound and released men (Hebrews) at their pleasure. Jesus bestows this authority on the Apostles. However, Peter, as head of the Apostles is given primary authority by Jesus. This loosing (and binding) extends to the removal (forgiveness) of sins. Jn. 20:23 states that the Apostles were given the authority to forgive and retain others’ sins. This authority provides the foundation for the sacrament of reconciliation (penance) by priests in the Catholic Church.

Scripture:

“Whose sins you forgive are forgiven them, and whose sins you retain are retained.” Jn. 20:23

Jesus gives His Apostles (and their successors) the authority to forgive sins. The successors of the Apostles are the bishops who come later. It is these bishops who ordain (give this authority) to subsequent priests.

“I will give you the keys to the kingdom of heaven. Whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.” Mt. 16:19

Jesus gives the keys to Peter.  Peter becomes primary gate keeper into the kingdom of heaven.  Peter provides an image of Eliakin who was the gate keeper of the temple of David.  Jesus gives the Apostles (and their successors) the authority to bind (retain) sins and loose (forgive) sins.

“But God raised Him up, releasing Him from the throes of death, because it was impossible for Him to be held by it.” Act. 2:24

Loosing become a form of releasing.

Conclusion:

Loose, loss, loose, less, solve, solution

It is interesting to note that binding and loosing (as a means of authority) has probably been in existence throughout history. We may not realize this, but we see this every time when we see a movie about kings, queens, and knights. “I shall serve you faithfully, your Majesty.” However, I think we are more aware of this concept in a religious context. Since the beginning of time, man has wanted to exert authority over others (slavery, servitude, and serfdom).

Scripture shows where Peter receives his authority upon receiving the keys of the kingdom. Eliakim, the prime minister of David’s palace, received actual keys to control access to the Temple of David.  Whereas, Peter receives spiritual keys to control access to the kingdom of heaven. Peter is given primary authority as Jesus’ prime minister. Along with the other Apostles, Jesus gives them the authority to loose (forgive) others’ sins.

In recent and current events, we also hear of situations of “catholic” politicians, for perhaps political reasons, do not advocate what the Catholic Church teaches. Such issues involve abortion and other issues (you know which). These situations can be seen both ways. Priests, bishops, and cardinals, in their ministerial role, state such politicians who do not follow Catholic teachings, should not be given Communion. These priests, bishops, and cardinals seek to bind these politicians from receiving this sacrament. Oftentimes, these ministers get criticized from the political and secular world for following Catholic teachings. And there are some ministers who willingly (or silently) permit these politicians to receive these sacraments. These ministers also get criticism. These situations may also involve the sacrament of marriage.

The Latin verb solver means to melt, to loosen, and to resolve. A solution is an issue (problem) being “melted or dissolved away”. The word solution, a liquid containing a dissolved substance, was first coined in the 1590’s. A solution, meaning an explanation (answer) was first coined in the 1530’s.

‎[Greek] πάσχω (paschō), [Latin] patere, [Latin] miserere, [Latin] passio, [Latin] sufferre, [French] endurer, [Latin] avoir pitie (have pity): to suffer, to undergo an experience (passion), to experience suffering, to endure, to feel in some measure, to suffer pain (hardship); 46 scriptural references

In response many of us may even often say, “But I don’t want to be a saint!”

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term means to suffer, to experience something, to suffer misfortune, to suffer from an illness, to suffer evil, and to undergo.

Seneca: “Misfortune is virtue’s opportunity.”

Homer’s Odyssey 5.223: “For this I have suffered much and toiled amid the war.”

Sophocles’ Antigone: “For death is gain to him, whose life like mine, is full of misery.”

Sophocles: “You must remember that no one lives a life free from pain and suffering.”

Sophocles: “One word frees us of all the weight and pain of life. That word is love.”

Old Testament: This term means to suffer under, to be oppressed by, to become weak (sick), to be punished, and to be grieved (sorry). Suffering occurs with Israel’s enemies and the people of Israel. The sufferings of Israel are due in part to divine punishment for their sinful deeds and actions. Although there could be some overlap with Maccabees, this term generally does not directly apply to the willing martyrdom theology developed in 2 Maccabees.

New Testament: Essentially, this term refers to Christ’s sufferings and to the sufferings of Christians for His sake. For purposes of brevity, scriptural references of Jesus’ suffering will be excluded.

Scripture:

Mt.17:15: “Lord, have pity on my son, for he is a lunatic [epileptic] and suffers severely; often he falls into fire, and often into water.” (At this time in history, epilepsy was not fully known or understood. It was thought that the moon caused epilepsy. The Latin noun lunatic was one who was “moon struck”.)

Mt.27:19: “While Pilate was still seated on the bench, his wife sent him a message, ‘Have nothing to do with this righteous man. I have suffered much in a dream today because of Him.'” (Jesus’ innocence is declared by a Gentile woman. This dream evokes guilt and alarm in Pilate’s wife. The gospel writer Matthew often utilizes dreams as a means of divine communication.)

Mk.5:26: “The hemorraghic woman had suffered greatly at the hands of many doctors and had spent all that she had. Yet she was not helped but only grew worse.” (This woman approached Jesus and touched His cloak, believing that she would be healed. Jesus, aware that power had gone out from Him, stated that her faith had saved her.)

Lk.13:2: “Jesus said them in reply, ‘Do you think that because these Galileans suffered in this way they were greater sinners than all others Galileans?'” (Some Gentiles were deliberately killed by Pilates’ hand. Some Gentiles were killed because a tower had fallen down. Jesus seeks to dispel the notion that victims of tragedies are NOT necessarily singled out for punishment. Jesus reminds them of the need for all to repent.)

Acts 9:16: “But the Lord said to Ananias, ‘Go, for this man is a chosen instrument of Mine to carry out My name before Gentiles, kings, and Israelites.'” (Saul of Tarsus will be repenting of the sufferings he inflicted on the Christians. Paul will be opposed by the Jews. Paul will be bitten by a snake. Paul will suffer martyrdom (decapitation) at the hands of the Roman Empire.)

Php.1:29: “For to you has been granted, for the sake of Christ, not only to believe in Him but also to suffer for Him.”

Steadfastness in faith:

1. One must conduct oneself in a way worthy of the gospel. (Conducting oneself with a clear conscience before God.)
2. One must have theological unity in the midst of suffering. (The community’s minds are striving together in one faith, leading the soul (desires and emotions) to correspondingly follow.)
3. One must not be intimidated by one’s opponents. (The Christian must be likened to a disciplined athlete or well-armed soldier.)
4. This steadfastness will lead to your salvation. (Perseverance and strength will be richly awarded in heaven.)

1Pet.2:19: “For whenever anyone bears unjust suffering because of God, that is a grace before God.”

1. If you are patient when you are suffering for doing what is good. That is a grace.
2. For you have been called, because Christ also suffered for you. Christ leaves you an example that you should follow in His footsteps.
3. This notion becomes very counter-intuitive in our current culture which avoids and fears suffering.

[Greek] συμπάσχω (sympaschō), [Latin] compatior: 

Rom.8:17: “If children of God, then heirs of God and joint heir with Christ, if only we suffer with Him so that we may also be glorified with Him.” (We suffer and are glorified with Him. Christians, with the Spirit’s presence, share new life in relationship with God. Christians share in BOTH SUFFERINGS AND GLORY in Christ.)

Rom.8:18: ” [Paul]: I consider that the sufferings of this present time are as nothing compared to the glory to be revealed to us.” (The glory that believers are destined to share FAR EXCEEDS the sufferings of the present life. This earthly life is just a blink of time (or drop in the bucket) in comparison to eternity.)

Perspectives on Suffering:

“Don’t waste your suffering.” St. John Paul II

“The greater you suffer, the greater God’s love for you.” St. Padre Pio

“If you really want to love Jesus, first learn to suffer, because suffering teaches you love.” St. Gemma Galgani

“Let us understand that God is a physician, and that suffering is medicine for salvation, not a punishment for damnation.” St. Augustine.

“Trials are nothing else but the forge that purifies the soul of all its imperfections.” St. Maria Magdalen de Pazzi

“You will be consoled according to the greatness of your sorrow and affliction. The greater the suffering, the greater will be the reward.” St. Maria Magdalen de Pazzi

“The greatest good suffering can do for me is increase my capacity for God.” Joni Eareckson Tada

Conclusion:

Paschal, passion, patient, endure, perpetuate (to endure to the full), perpetual

Greek tragedies often provided a social commentary on the moral issues (human condition) of the day. This in turn may have provided one with personal self-discovery or insight about these cultural issues.

The Old Testament culture perceives that the meaning of suffering is for salvation’s sake and readiness for God. It was also interesting to note that this term was expressly not related to martyrdom. There could be a gray area between fidelity to God, vicarious suffering, persecution, and willing martyrdom. As you know, the books of Maccabees referred to the Zealots (Jews who sought to overthrow the Romans).

Update: We all should offer our prayers for the victims of hurricane Helene and hurricane Milton and those impacted by war and violence. Sometimes we often lose sight of that there are always others who may be in far more difficult situations that we are in.

Unfortunately, many Traditional and conservative Catholics are becoming very alarmed by how this Synodal path is undermining Jesus’ Church. Jesus’ Church is being transformed into a synodal church in the image of man (and his lived experiences). It is actually becoming a nightmare!

We all should learn from the hemorraghic woman in having faith and trust that Jesus will heal and help us.

It is an unfortunate reality that we live in a dangerous world filled with disease, suffering, war, violence, and racism. Many people die from natural causes, accidents, and from intentional causes. Jesus reminds each of us that we must get our salvation (spiritual affairs) in order before we face judgment. Life is often very fleeting and short. We need to make the most of our lives on earth!

Yet, it seems that bringing souls into heaven (TALKING ABOUT WHAT IS SINFUL) is overshadowed by tolerance, mercy above all else, inclusion, and situational morality (NOT TALKING ABOUT WHAT IS SINFUL). Many people’s eternal souls could be in peril. This is what inevitably happens when you have a synodal Church (made in the image of man and his lived experiences).

We are also reminded in that we may experience opposition, persecution, and even martyrdom. Bishop Strickland has essentially become a white martyr in standing up for the faith in this post Christian secular world. One may be called rigid, intolerant, and hateful by the world  and Modernists.

Many are often unaware that come are called to suffer whether they realize it or not. This is often part of God’s will for some people. This suffering can be efficacious and redemptive when we can offer up our salvation for the salvation of souls. This suffering can be a grace according to God.

Another aspect of redemptive suffering: this may allow one to become all the more closer to Jesus.

“God will either shield you from suffering or give you unfailing strength to bear it.” St. Francis de Sales

Next post: symphonic thoughts

[Greek] ἐνδύω (enduō), [Latin] induere, [Latin] vestire, [French] attirer: to clothe, to be clothed (sinking into a garment), to endow, to be endowed, to invest with clothing, to put on oneself, to put on, to dress oneself, to wear clothes, to endue, to enter into, to envelope in, to hide in; Lk. 15:22, Mt.6:25, Mk.1:6, Lk.8:27, Lk.24:49, Act. 12:21, Rom.13:12, 1Cor.15:53, Gal.;27, Eph.4:24, Col.3:10, 1Thess.5:8, Rev.1:13, 2Cor.5:3

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term can mean to draw on something, to put on something, to clothe oneself with something, and to play the role of someone. This term was quite often used figuratively by the famous Greek writers and playwrights. Homer makes mention of one “clothed with strength.” Aristophanes makes mention of one “clothed with audacity.” Endymion, god of the Sun, refers to the sun setting (“clothed by night.”). Pythagoras, an advocate of reincarnation, believed that any soul could be “clothed” in a body.

Old Testament: This term is mostly used for and relates to the putting on of clothes. Other varied ways include to gird something, to wrap around, and to put (set). Girding becomes a frequent Old Testament reference for clothing someone. God often provides (clothes) for others in Genesis. Clothing someone becomes associated with attaining redeeming qualities as wisdom, judgment, and authority. In contrast, removal of such figurative clothing diminishes this status. The Spirit of the Lord enveloped Gideon (Jdg 6:34). I wear my honesty like a garment (Job 29:14). Your priests will be clothed with justice (Psa.13:9). God made coats of skins and clothed them (Gen.3:21). With your loins girded (Ex.12:11). She is clothed with strength and dignity (Prov.31:25). Moses stripped Aaron of his garments and put them on his son Eleazar (Num20:28). If you strive after justice, you will attain it, and put in on like a splendid robe (Sir. 27:8).

New Testament: This term is both used literally and figuratively in the New Testament. Perhaps, the most noticeable literal example refers to the father who provides a robe for his prodigal (wayward) son. Interestingly, this term is used quite extensively in a metaphorical sense. Such metaphorical examples refer to protection, desirable qualities, Christ, and the heavenly habitation (new self). This is the means by which God will prepare us for our heavenly habitation. In a sense, by being clothed by the Holy Spirit, we will be cleansed from our fallen human nature.

Scripture:

“But his father ordered his servants, ‘Quickly bring the finest robe and put it on him; put a ring on his finger and sandals on his feet.’” Lk.15:22

This is famous story of the prodigal son, who is welcomed back by his father.  It has been said the father represents God the Father who shows unconditional love.

“For all of you who were baptized into Christ have clothed yourselves with Christ.” Gal.3:27

In a sense, one becomes a new creation in Christ when one is baptized. This attains equality in the view of God.

“Put on the armor of God so that you may be able to stand firm against the tactics of the devil.” Eph.6:11

This metaphorical sense provides the means to protect oneself against the corrupt way of the world.

Conclusion:

Endue, endowment, endow, vestment

It was interesting to discover the frequent figurative (and metaphorical) uses of this term in ancient Greek literature. This is seen in as a characteristic of Hellenistic literature.

I was surprised that the Old Testament culture also frequently used the figurative sense of this term. It would also be interesting to determine if this in fact had been attributed to Hellenism. This figurative sense seeks to further illustrate aspects of God.

Most of the literal uses of this term are actually found in the synoptic gospels. Perhaps, the most notable example refers to the father welcoming and clothing his wayward son. Luke, who understood Greek, was influenced by Hellenism. Luke uses this term in a figurative sense. The majority of the figurative uses of this term occur in the non-synoptic books written by Paul. Paul was a Roman who wrote to the communities in the Mediterranean region. Paul also understood Hellenistic literary references.

Endue, not frequently used in everyday communication, refers to being clothed. In addition to being literally used, this can also be figuratively used in sense of being clothed with power or authority. An endowment is a charitable gift given to a person or organization. This term was first used in the 1590’s.

Update: Just this past Thursday (May 31), my niece Amanda was selected as the winner in an essay contest on why she needs a car. As a result, she won a refurbished car from from a local non-profit organization (and auto repair facility)! Rather than sinking into a garment, Amanda will now be sinking into leather seats as she drives to college.

‎[Greek] μετρέω (metreō), [Latin] metiri: to measure, to measure out, to estimate, to ascertain, to give a measure, to apportion; Mt. 7:2, Mk.4:24, Lk.6:38, Jn.3:34, Mt. 23:32, Rev. 21:15,17, Rom. 12:3, Eph. 4:7, Rev. 11:1

This illustrates the wonderful folly of man to be soon wearied of the most agreeable things.

Background information:

Greek Hellenism: This term means to measure, to traverse (the sea), to evaluate, to judge, and to measure something with someone. In various ways this term provides a measure defining man and distances. In Homer’s Odyssey, to cross the sea is to measure it. Locations (sites) at sea are measured in days. In Homer’s Illiad, men grow weary of the most agreeable things. Discontent causes change. The Greek tragedian (playwright) Euripides stated that in the theater, humanity is the measure of morality. Protagoras, an ancient Greek free thinker (Sophist), is believed to have stated, “Man is the measure of all things.” This philosophy states that individuals each can determine what is truth. In other words, there is no objective truth. Man can believe whatever he wants to believe. This becomes the precursor to the philosophy of relativism.

Old Testament: This term, used in varied ways, is related to two Hebrew terms. The Hebrew terms can mean to regulate, to measure, to estimate, to reckon (count), to weight, to mete, to stretch, and to survey. Measuring and measures are repeatedly found in Old Testament in references to building specifications for holy buildings (temples, altars, and tabernacles).These terms’ passive or metaphorical sense can be found in the sense of being measured, being extended, being meted out, being reckoned out, and being repaid. Such examples include kindness, actions, and punishment. These terms can also mean to appoint or to be appointed. They measured the grain out by the omer (dry unit measure) (Exod.16:18). He stretched himself out upon the child three times and he called out to the Lord (1Kgs.17:21). He looked and made the nations tremble (Hab. 3:6). For an all-knowing God is the Lord, a God who weighs actions (1Sam.2:3). When He weighed out the wind, and measured out the waters (Job 28:25). Who has marked off the heavens with a span (Isa. 40:12). But the house of Israel says, ‘The Lord’s way is not fair.’ (Ezek. 18:29). I will measure their former work into their bosom (Isa.65:7).

New Testament: Like the Old Testament, the New Testament culture continues to use this term in various and nuanced senses. This term can mean to apportion equally (to oneself), to give out, to participate in one’s own guilt (sins), and to measure dimensions. The synoptic gospels caution that each person will be judged (measured) by how one will judge (measure) others. God will ration His gifts according to our needs. Jesus claims that the present generation (of Jews) will also to be accountable for one’s guilt (sins). Measuring rods will be needed to measure dimensions.

Scripture:

“For as you judge, so will you be judged, and the measure with which you measure will be measured out to you.” Mt. 7:2

This scripture states that we (our actions) will be judged according to how we act toward others. This becomes a prohibition against judging others.

“Now fill up what your ancestors measure out!” Mt. 23:32

Jesus has already stated that past generations have persecuted the prophets and the righteous. The current generation of scribes and Pharisees will also assume their (role) part in persecuting Jesus.

“But grace was given to each of us according to the measure of Christ’s gift.” Eph. 4:7

God knows what is best for each of us. God will give each of us the grace we need.

Thoughts on Relativism:

“But there is another form of poverty. It (Relativism) is the spiritual poverty of our time.” Pope Francis

“The dictatorship of relativism is confronting the world. It does not recognize anything as absolute and leaves as the absolute measure only the measure of each one and his desires.” Pope Benedict XVI

“A cosmic philosophy is not constructed to fit a man; a cosmic philosophy is constructed to fit a cosmos. A man can no more possess a private religion than he can possess a private sun and moon.” GK Chesteron

Conclusion:

Measure, metrics, geometry, meter, mete

It is interesting to note that even the ancient Greek poets and tragedians (playwrights) touched upon the issues of the human condition. The Greek stage provides a window into humanity. Homer speaks to the human desire to seek change and justice. Protagoras had originally planted the seeds for the belief system of relativism. Relativism finds itself in our current age. Pope Benedict had often spoke of its dangerous effects in modern society. This belief system has in subtle ways influenced Christian beliefs. “I know that it is wrong, but who I am to judge what he/she believes….”  And I think many of us are guilty of this in some form or another. Pick any important subject matter and you may possibly find this problem.

The Old Testament develops nuanced ways of measuring. This also extends into how God extends/apportions/weighs judgment and blessings. The New Testament continues this theme. It is interesting to see how Jesus apportions the sins of persecution to the both the Old Testament culture and the present generation of Jews. The New Testament further develops this idea in measuring one’s own actions. One will be judged in how they judge others

The New Testament canon contains all the inspired gospels (and books) of scripture. In a sense, this becomes the “measuring stick” or rule which defines the New Testament.

I recall one of my favorite Star Trek TNG episodes “The Measure of a Man”, which delved into Lt. Commander Data’s sentience and “humanity.” This episode determined whether Data was considered a sentient being or property by Starfleet. In my opinion, this episode (among others) had really set the standard (measure) for important subject matter and quality writing. That’s what I love about science fiction, a genre which also provides a window into man’s relationship with technology. By any measure, there really is no standard definition of what science fiction can be!

‎[Greek] μέλαν (melan): black, black color, blackness, inky, dark; Mt.5:36, Rev.6:5,12, 2 Cor. 3:3, 2 Jn.12, 3 Jn. 13

The Nile River’s rich black colored delta (and river bed) provided fertile grounds for agriculture.

Background Information:

Ancient Greek: This term is commonly used in a descriptive and figurative sense. It is interesting to note that in the Illiad, Homer refers to the ocean as black, rather than dark blue (or green). Perhaps this could have been a literary device used to describe the darkness of the sea. Homer’s Illiad 2,834 states, “But the twain would in no wise hearken, for the fates of black death were leading them.” Since the beginning of antiquity, black has always been regarded as sinister, dreadful, sad, and unlucky. In the tragedies of the 5th century BC, the Greek term melancholao meant “I fill with black bile.” Essentially, this means “I am becoming mad (passionate).” The Greek physicians Galen and Hippocrates thought that melancholia (depression) was caused by an excess of black bile.

Old Testament: Interestingly, this term is related to two Hebrew terms: Shichor (Nile River) and shachor (black). The Israelite and Judean cultures essentially held the same view towards black. The Nile River, with a black river bed, was called called Melas in the Greek language. The Greeks referred to the Egyptians as Melanpodes (black-feet). These Egyptians would have black feet as they paddled about in the black Nile mud during the sowing season. The color black really had no part in cultic worship. Ordinary references to black include black eyes, dark hair, dark skin, sun-burnt skin, dark horses, dark sheep, dark goats, and ink. There are references to the art of dyeing the hair black. Whose revenue was the grain of Shihor, the harvest of the Nile (Isa.23:3). From the stream adjoinging Egypt (Josh.13:3). David assembled all Israel, from Shihor of Egypt to Lebo-hamath (1Chr. 13:5). And now, why go to Egypt, to the drink the waters of the Nile? (Jer.2:18). Remove from it every dark animal among the sheep (Gen.30:32). Though the hair on it (sore) may not be black (Lev.13:31). His locks black as the raven (Song Sol. 5:11). Because the sun has burned me (Song Sol. 1:6). I wrote them down with ink in the book (Jer.43:18).

New Testament: This term, as with the Old Testament, is rarely found in the New Testament. There continues the Old Testament culture’s influence on the use of the color black. Black is used to indicate a black horse, youth, ink, and the darkening of the sun. Jesus claims one cannot swear by one’s head (if one dyes one’s hair). Only God can make one’s hair black or white. Black hardly ever occurs as an apocalyptic color. Generally, black is a color of mourning. The sack cloth typically is a garment for mourning. Reference is made to the dark color (blackness) of the sack cloth.

Scripture:

“Do not swear by your head, for you cannot make a single hair white or black.” Mt. 5:36

Black hair indicates youthfulness. White hair indicates old age. Only God can make this oath.

“Then I watched while he broke open the sixth seal, and there was a great earthquake; the sun turned as black as a dark sackcloth and whole moon became like blood.” Rev. 6:12

The sun darkened into the color of a sackcloth. Sackcloth, a garment for mourning, were often the color of black.

“You are our letter, written on our hearts, known and read by all, shown to be a letter of Christ administered by us, written not in ink but by the Spirit of the living God, not on tablets of stone but on tablets that are hearts of flesh.” 2 Cor. 3:3

Paul is making a distinction of different letters (of recommendation). Letters written in ink were like the credentials of other preachers.

Conclusion:

Melancholy, melancholic, melatonin, melanoma

It was interesting to discover that in ancient Greek literature, specific colors were not emphasized. Instead, black represented dark gray, dark blue, and dark red. It is very evident that Homer and the Greek tragedians (playwrights) frequently evoked such great imagery and fanciful imagination involving the color black. Even the ancient Greek physicians, who lacked true understanding of the human physical condition, unwittingly contributed to this foreboding and somber sense of the color black. These physicians thought that melancholia (depression) was caused by an accumulation of black bile. One can only image the somber mood (setting) when they tell their patients they have a black mole or skin cancer! (The irony is that they would have been concerned for the wrong reasons. These doctors probably wouldn’t have been aware of skin cancer in the first place.)

But with all seriousness, melanoma (skin cancer) is no laughing matter. This needs to be checked! I know this already from personal experience.

I did not realize that the Greek referred to the Nile as Melas. This makes sense in that the Nile’s river bed (and delta) contain rich dark (black) sediment. This soil provided fertile grounds for agriculture.

In the New Testament, black is used in more nuanced ways, indicating youthfulness, obstruction (darkening), ink, and mourning. Reference is made to the sackcloth, a garment used in mourning. You know a sackcloth is black when it is compared to a darkened sun. Not surprisingly, black is the color for mourning. Lampblack is a carbon soot that results when a flame is obstructed, leaving a powdery black residue on a surface. Lampblack is used as a pigment for crayons, ceramics, shoe polish, inks, and paints.

[Greek] χείρ (cheir): hand, person, power, authority, be in control of, direction, by the hand of, at the hand of; Mt.8:3, Lk.15:22, Mk.16:18, Act. 7:50, Lk.1:66, Act.12:11, 1Thess.4:11, 1Cor.4:12, Eph.4:28, Act.20:34, Mt.4:6, Mk.9:31, Lk.23:46, Rom.10:21, Act.11:21

Michelangelo’s Creation of Adam (1511-1512): God’s right hand reaches out to Adam

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term, pertaining to the hand, determines movement, actions, power, and greetings. Expressions such as “to take something in hand,” “to be at work on it,” and “have at hand,” refer to acts performed by the hand. According to Aristotle, the hand is the organ par excellence by which man  manifests practical reason. In Euripides’ play Orestes, the character Orestes seeks to avenge the death of his father Agamemnon at her mother’s hands (actions). Aesculapius, the god of medicine and healing, heals by touching the sick with his right hand (and through dreams). When a thing is in one’s hand, control is exercised over it. Interestingly, in the Michelangelo’s painting Creation of Adam, God extends out His right hand to Adam.

Old Testament: Man uses his hand in his acts, giving and receiving, handshaking, blessing, praying, and washing (cleanliness rituals). The right hand, attaining greater value than the left, indicates a stronger blessing and a place of honor. Filling with the hands also denotes investiture with an office. The hand of God is illustrated by God’s activity in creation and work. The hand of God also is indicated by a victory over an enemy. The laying on of hands bestows the institution (or replacement) of a person holding an office of authority. The laying of hands also often provides the means to heal the sick. Take to you handfuls of ashes of the furnace (Exo.9:8). Better is a handful of quietness (Eccl.4:6).  Who has cupped in his hand the waters of the sea (Isa.40:12). No hand shall touch him (Exo.19:13). Israel put out his right hand and touched the head of Ephraim (Gen.48:14). I will lay My hand on Egypt (Exo.7:4). Take your throne at my right hand (Psa.110:1). Jehonadab gave him his hand (2Kgs.10:15). To the heavens I raise my hand and swear (Deut.32:40).

New Testament: Again, there are many references to the hand in the New Testament. Usually the hand provides the instrument through which man fulfills his will. Handing over illustrates an exercise of authority (power) over others. Jesus is handed over to the Jewish authorities. The Father’s authority is at the right hand. The hand of God (intervening and protecting) continues in the New Testament. Jesus uses His hand to heal the sick in the miracle stories. Hands are also used in blessing. The laying on of hands provides the authority for the commissioning (replacement) of an office of authority and ordinations.

Scripture:

“He stretched out His hand, touched him and said, ‘I will do it. Be made clean.’ His leprosy was cleansed immediately.” Mt. 8:3

Jesus uses His hand to heal the leper. His hand was the instrument for healing.

“Jesus cried out in a loud voice, ‘Father, into your hands I commend My Spirit’; and when He had said this He breathed His last breath.” Lk.23:46

“All who heard these things took them to heart, saying ‘What, then, will this child be?’ For surely the hand of Lord was with him.” Lk. 1:66

God is being given human qualities. God’s providence plays apart in John’s birth.

Early Church: St. Hippolytus (170-235 AD) was one of the most important theologians in the Christian Church in Rome. In his Apostolic Tradition, written in 215 AD, he provided important information about the hierarchical organization of the Church. St. Hippolytus was a disciple of Irenaeus (130-202 AD), who was a disciple of Polycarp (69-155 AD), who was a disciple of the Apostle John. This letter states, “Then one of the bishops present shall impose his hand on the one who is being ordained bishop, saying…Pour forth now that power which comes from you, from your Spirit, which you gave to your Beloved Son Jesus Christ and which He bestowed upon His holy Apostles, who established in every place the Church of your sanctification.”

Conclusion:

Chiropractor, chiropractic

A chiropractor is essentially one, in his practice (praxis), who uses his hands to adjust (manipulate) the vertebrae and muscles in order to relieve pain or tightness of the patient.

Since early times, it is not surprising that there have been many references and uses regarding the right hand. For a long time, the right hand was highly favored. The right hand was used for greetings and sealing agreements (contracts). One’s right hand indicated the preferred location (direction). The Greeks, facing south, would see birds on their right as a positive sign. On the other hand, the Romans, facing north, would also see birds on their right as a positive sign. It is also interesting (but not surprising) to note that important actions (healing, greeting, bestowing authority, and anointing) were carried out by the right hand.

The Old Testament culture further develops the idea of the right hand as the location of honor. The hand of God is developed to illustrate God’s intervention (help) in the affairs of man. The laying on of hands is important in bestowing blessing, offering sacrifices, and instituting offices of authority. This idea continues in the New Testament culture.

The hand is further illustrated as a source of power (authority) in holding a person in custody. The right hand of God further becomes God’s source (place) of authority. The hand becomes important in Jesus’ healing ministry. The laying on of hands later develops into two sacraments: anointing of the sick and holy orders.

Catholic perspective: The bishops are the successors of the Apostles. A bishop can claim that he was appointed by a earlier bishop who was appointed by an still earlier bishop, who was appointed by a much earlier bishop…etc. The starting point of these appointments can be ultimately traced back to the Apostles. It is also interesting to note that Hippolytus, Irenaeus, Polycarp, and the Apostle John are linked together by discipleship. In addition, Hippolytus, Irenaeus, and Polycarp were also bishops.

WARNING — USELESS WORDS ALERT —

Chiromancy: Fortunetelling or divination by inspection of a person’s hands.

Chiromancer: A person (mantis) who provides fortunetelling by the inspection of a person’s hands. (Smoke not included.)

(For those who need pointless information on hand.)

[Greek] μαίνομαι (mainomai), [Latin] insania: to rage, to be mad, to rave as a maniac, to beside oneself, to be raving mad, to be totally irrational, to be out of one’s mind, to be furious; Jn.10:20, Act.12:15, Act.26:24,25, 1Cor.14:23

The seer (mantis), entering into an agitated state, seeks to ascertain the will of the gods.

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: Essentially, this term means to rage. This term can describe the actions of fury, intoxication, anger, sorrow, desire, passion, frenzy, and madness. Homer illustrates the terror evoking manner of the fighting of the god or hero. Homer also describes the intoxicating effects of drink (wine). In the Illiad 6.132, the frenzied and intoxicated female worshippers of Dionysus tore Orpheus’ body to shreds. The Greek seer (mantis) is a professional diviner who seeks to interpret the will of the gods. The seer would often fall into a state of madness, rage, or inspiration.

Old Testament: This term, related to the Hebrew naba, pertains to the raving waves of human emotion. Such examples include passion, insanity, madness, religious frenzy, piety, faithfulness, and prophesy. The obedience and fidelity of Jews to the Law may appear to be a form of madness to outsiders who oppose the Law. Oftentimes, the worlds of belief and unbelief consider each other mad. Such examples may include inspiration, and willing martyrdom. The building of the tower of Babel is considered madness by God. But the mouths of fools spouts folly (Prov.15:2). My lips shall utter praise (Psa. 119:17). To day pours forth speech (Psa. 19:2). They shall drink, and be convulsed, and go mad (Jer.32:16). Do not give away to the same insanity as your brother (4Macc.10:13). They prophesied and did not cease (Num. 11:25). God came upon Saul, and he prophesied among the prophets (1Sam.10:10). Not only do I advise you not to display the same madness as that of the old man who has just been tortured (4Macc.8:5). Our father Eleazar broke the maddening waves of the emotions (4Macc.7:5).

New Testament: This term, used only to characterize God’s messengers, expresses the unbeliever’s unbelief toward divinely inspired witness and salvation. Those Jews, who rejected Jesus, believed that Jesus was out of His mind and mad. The disciples thought that the girl was mad for saying that the imprisoned Peter is standing outside the door. Peter escaped with the help of the angel. The Roman governor Festus thought that Paul was mad for speaking about the victory of the risen Christ. The believers, speaking with tongues, were considered to be mad by the non-Christians.

Scripture:

“Many of them said, ‘He is possessed and out of His mind; why listen to Him?’” Jn. 10:20

Some Jews rejected Jesus because He claimed to have been giving authority by the Father.  So the Jews considered Jesus to be mad and be allowed to be accused of blasphemy.

“The disciples told her, ‘You are out of your mind,’ but she insisted that it was so. But they kept saying, ‘It is his angel.’” Act. 12:15

The disciples could not believe that this girl was giving them the news of an incredible divine miracle.

“So if the whole church meets in one place and everyone speaks in tongues, and then uninstructed or unbelieves should come in, will they not say that you are out of your minds?” 1Cor.14:23

These unbelievers would have considered these followers to be mad.

Conclusion:

Mantis, mania, maniac, manic, insane, insanity

It is interesting to note that the Greek term mantis means seer (one who prophesies). I think many of us can visualize the seer attaining an agitated state of frenzy, madness, or utterances. The seer may also seem to be praying or she could be out of her mind.

The Old Testament culture provides an important dynamic considering what is deemed madness. This idea is depicted depending either from the religious or non-religious perspective. This determination is dependent on one’s vantage. The tower of Babel was constructed by Nimrod. God punished Nimrod and those involved with building this tower with an indecipherable and babbling language. And yet today parents still do not name their child Nimrod! They must be out of their minds! ☺☺☺

The New Testament culture further develops the idea of what is considered mad through the perspectives of the believer and unbeliever. This idea becomes a value judgement of the unbeliever who rejects Christians and Jesus. The Jewish leaders see this person who claims to be the Son of God, who claims to forgive sins, and who claims to have authority from the Father. It is not surprising that the Jewish authorities would think that Jesus is out of His mind!

We are all aware of that iconic insect with a triangular head and large eyes. This insect stands in its upright posture, while remaining stationary with forearms folded. No wonder it is called a praying mantis. But I think we can all imagine what a praying mantis is thinking when it is looking at its lunch (insect). “If you all think that I am praying when I am looking at that bug, then you all must be out of your minds!”

[Greek] καθαίρω (kathairō), [Latin] purgare: to cleanse, to prune, to expiate, to purge, to make clean; Jn. 15:2, Mt. 23:25, Lk. 11:41, Mt. 5:8, 1Pet.1:22, Heb. 9:13, Jn. 13:10

Delos Island, birthplace of Apollos, was so sacred that no one was allowed to be buried here. Mortal childbirth was not even allowed on this island.

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: Essentially, this term can mean to clean, to cleanse, to prune, to purify, and to clarify. Interestingly, this term is found in a cultic sense, agricultural sense, a moral sense, and a philosophical sense. In the ancient world, farmers cleanse their vines by pruning. It was important to cleanse (purify) oneself in order to approach the gods. Delos Island was considered so sacred that no one was allowed near Apollos’ Temple. Epictetus, Plato, and Aristotle believed it was important to provide clarification (purity) of thought in difficult issues of natural philosophy.

Old Testament: This Greek term is related to the Hebrew term taher, which is found over two hundred times. Taher can mean to be clean, to be clean ceremonially, to be clean morally, to purify, to pronounce clean, to perform the ceremony of cleansing, and to purify one self. Uncleanliness is a power which defiles. Anything associated with a foreign cult or hostile to Yahweh is unclean. The Law works out a series of regulations and purification practices to provide the necessary state of holiness necessary to encounter God. A burnt offering is provided in the event of a severe impurity. The impurity may be transmitted to an animal which takes it away. On the other hand, the prophets advocated ethical purity, rather than cultic purity. I will sprinkle clean water over you to make you clean (Ezek. 36:25). Go and wash seven times in the Jordan, and your flesh will heal, and you will be clean (2 Kgs. 5:10). It must be immersed in water and remain unclean until evening, when it again becomes clean (Lev.11:32). The rest of the oil in his hand the priest shall put on the head of the one being purified (Lev. 14:18). When a man with a discharge becomes clean of his discharge, he shall count seven days for his purification (Lev.15:13).

New Testament: The older ritual concept of purity is both transcended and rejected as unnecessary and inadequate. Religious and moral purity replaces ritual and cultural purity. Jesus opposed this older view of cleanness. What is physically clean is fit and adapted for sacred use and interaction with God. The righteous may eat any kind of food. The purification of the righteousness is not through rituals, but through faith in the sphere of personal life. The purity of the heart is far above more important than the cleanness of the hands. Christ’s death accomplishes this cleansing of sins.

Purgatory: The Catholic perspective of purgatory comes from the notion that one cannot enter heaven (being in the presence of God) with sin. Purgatory provides the means for this process by which souls can “burn off” sins. One can only speculate if purgatory is a place. Perhaps, purgatory is more likely a state of being. Those souls, who find themselves in purgatory, will eventually enter into heaven. Essentially, purgatory exemplifies God’s mercy. Scriptural support for purgatory comes from 1Cor.3:15 (purifying fire), 2Macc.12:45 (praying for the dead), and Rev.21:27 (nothing unclean will enter God’s presence).

Scripture:

“He takes away every branch in Me that does not bear fruit, and everyone that does He prunes so that it bears more fruit.” Jn. 15:2

Like a farmer, God prunes the dead branches which cannot grow.

“Woe, to you, scribes and Pharisees, you hypocrites. You cleanse outside the cup and dish, but inside they are full of plunder and self-indulgence.” Mt. 23:52

Jesus claims that the external cultic practices are not important. What is more important is what comes from within. The scribes and Pharisees were more concerned with physical appearances.

“Jesus said to him, ‘Whoever has bathed has no need except to have his feet washed, for he is clean all over; so you are clean, but not all.’” Jn. 13:10

Jesus claims that we are made clean by the Word. The disciples are made clean by their association with Jesus.

Conclusion:

Catharsis, cathartic, purge, Katherine (Catherine), Kathy (Cathy), Purgatory

In the ancient Greco-Roman culture, it was interesting to discover some of the nuanced uses of this term. Philosophers often sought to live a more refined (purified) moral life and to provide clarity of thought regarding natural philosophy. It was very apparent that cultic purity and separation were very necessary regarding encounter of the gods and their sacred grounds.

It was also interesting to learn that the Old Testament prophets were prophetic in stressing ethical purity rather than cultic purity. Perhaps, the prophets were given a prophetic “heads up” from God about what will later occur when Jesus enters the scene. Sounds like a prophetic thing to do!

It is significant (but really not surprising) that Jesus causes a new paradigm shift, emphasizing ethical purity rather than cultic purity. In other words, Jesus states what comes from inside a person is much more important than rituals that determine what goes inside a person.

Although not specifically stated in the bible, purgatory provides the means to remove sin before one can enter into heaven. Granted, not every Christian accepts this teaching. But one has to acknowledge that sin cannot be present in God’s domain (heaven). Heaven is a sin-free zone.

The names Catherine and Cathy mean innocent, clear, and pure.

‎[Greek] κοιμάω (koimaō), [Latin] dormire: to sleep (in a cemetery), to be asleep, to be in a coma, to be dead, to put to sleep, to fall asleep, to slumber, to decease, to be deceased, to put to bed; Mt. 27:52, Mt.28:13, Lk. 22:45, Jn. 11:11-12, Acts 7:60, Acts 12:6, Acts 13:36, 1Cor.7:39, 1Cor.11:30, 1Cor.15:6, 18,51, 1Thess.4:13,5, 2Pet.3:4

The Appian Way: a painting by John Linton Chapman (1869).  Tombs and graves were placed along the road out of Rome.

Background Information:

Greco-Roman Culture: This term is primarily used as a euphemism (falling sleep) for death. Homer recounts Agamemnon, slain with an arrow, fell and slept (died). Sophocles recounts Myrtilus resting beneath the waves. In ancient times, resting places were also known as dormitories, sleeping places, and bedrooms. Such burial places were placed  some distance from the towns. Outside of Rome, tombs, monuments, and mausoleums were placed along the roads. In the early Christian era, deceased Christians were placed in pagan tombs, operated by funerary associations. Thousands of travelers made frequent pilgrimages to various temple grounds throughout the pagan world. Inns and lodging (resting and sleeping places) were built nearby to accommodate these weary travelers.

Old Testament: This term is related to the Hebrew term shakab, which has the basic sense of lying down. The Old Testament world presents a much simpler culture than the cosmopolitan Greco-Roman world. Interestingly, in the Old Testament culture, this term takes on various meanings. This term can mean to be killed, to lie (rest), to lie down for sexual relations, to lie down to recover, to be ill, to be humbled, to be laid to rest, and to lodge. Let us lie down in our shame (Jer. 2:25). Where he sank down, there he fell, slain (Jdg. 5:27). The mother took him upstairs and laid him on the bed (2Kgs. 4:21). He found the boy lying dead (2 Kgs.4:32). Whoever sleeps or eats in such a house shall also wash his garments  (Lev. 14:47). You shall know (die) the Lord Hos. 2:20). He went out to sleep on his bed among his lord’s servants (2 Sam. 11:13). And their wives ravished (Isa. 13:16).

New Testament: This term is used in a more limited sense, meaning to sleep and to be dead. Used primarily as a euphemism for death, this term is never used for spiritual lethargy. For the Christian, the grave is associated with the idea of a calm and undisturbed repose with the hope of a resurrection. As in the episode with Lazarus, the distinction between sleep and death may not be clear. In Pergamum, one of the seven cities mentioned in the Book of Revelations, Christians were facing formidable pagan influences. Ascelpius, the god of healing, found great favor among the people. At the Asclepion (temple), the patients would gather in a dormitory (sleeping room). The god, by the means of entering into the patients’ dreams, would provide them with their cures.

Scripture:

“Then Stephen fell to his knees and cried out in a loud voice, ‘Lord, do not hold this sin against them’, and when he said this, he fell asleep.” Acts 7:60

Stephen was being stoned to death and later died.

“On the very night before Herod was to bring Him to trial, Peter secured by double chains, was sleeping between two soldiers.” Acts 12:6

Peter was sleeping in the normal sense of exhaustion.”

“The chief priests assembled with the elders and took counsel; then they gave a large sum of money to the soldiers, telling them, ‘You are to say, His disciples came by night and stole Him while we were asleep.’” Mt. 28:12-13

The chief priests and elders appeared to make contingencies on the event that Jesus’ body disappearing from the tomb. The chief priests and elders did not want to allow the story of Jesus’ resurrection to start.

Conclusion:

Cemetery, coma, comatose, sepulcher

Even the Greeks and Romans had different views about death and the afterlife. The Greeks believed that the memory of the dead was necessary for the existence of the spirit in the afterlife. The Romans were buried in cemeteries (and other places) outside the city in order to mark the divide between the land of the living and the land of the dead. With the rise of Christianity and lack of space, catacombs were dug underground.

I was quite surprised by the many varied uses of this term in the Old Testament culture. The Old Testament culture used this term in a variety of descriptive, metaphorical and nuanced ways. I thought this was an interesting use to convey submission, pleading, and shame. In an unfortunately “prophetic” and ironic sense, this term is still used today used to convey sexual relations. Somewhat like the Greeks, the Christian believed in an afterlife. However, Christians looked forward to a resurrected life.

It is interesting to discover how we can get from a cemetery to a college dorm. Evidently, they both are sleeping facilities in one form or another.

[Greek] ‎ὀρθοποδέω (orthopodeō), [Latin] ambulare: to walk straight, to walk uprightly, to live right, to walk in a straight path (to leave a straight path for others to follow), to act rightly, not to waver, not to tumble; Gal. 2:14

Background Information:

Classical Greek: This term is rarely used in the Classical era. However, the playwright Sophocles presents this term in the story of Oedipus Rex, a mythical king of Thebes. This play explores the theme of the flawed nature of humanity. Oedipus returns to finds the city of Thebes at the mercy of the Sphinx. The Sphinx asks Oedipus the riddle, “What is that which has one voice and yet becomes four-footed and two-footed and three-footed?” Oedipus correctly answers, “Man; for as a babe he is four-footed, going on four limbs, as an adult he is two-footed, and as an old man, he gets besides a third support in a staff.”  Oedipus eventually wins the throne and the hand in marriage of the king’s widow. This victory ultimately leads to Oedipus’s downfall.

Old Testament: Although not specifically mentioned in the Old Testament, this term is used to express one’s religious and ethical “walk” in life. The Hebrew term is halakha. Interestingly, halakha is often translated as “Jewish Law.” In literal terms, this means “the way of walking.” This term is not used in a spatial (locational) sense. One always walks with God on the earth. This is in keeping with the moral sense of piety. Essentially, this refers to how one conducts himself (walks in a straight path) in life before God.

New Testament: This term, found only once, means to live right or act rightly. Peter, eating with the Gentiles, was being hypocritical (not walking in a straight path). Peter was not on the right road (path) in line with the truth of the gospel. Paul admonished Peter for living like a Gentile, rather than living like a Jew. The Jerusalem Council had not yet settled the issues of table fellowship between Jews and Gentiles and the kosher food regulations.

Scripture:

“But when I saw that they were not on the right road in line with the truth of the gospel, I said to Kephas in front of all, ‘If you, though a Jew, are living like a Gentile and not like a Jew, how can you compel the Gentiles to live like the Jews?’”

Paul publically admonishes Peter for being a hypocrite. Peter was not walking on the right path in his faith and conduct.

Conclusion:

Orthopedic, orthopedics, ambulance

It is interesting to note that this idea of walking in a straight path was not very prevalent in ancient Greece. However, Sophocles did touch upon this subject matter in his play Oedipus. As we all know, Oedipus eventually “walked” into trouble. It is also interesting to note that Oedipus literally means “swollen foot.”

On the other hand, the Old Testament culture develops an monotheistic society. So it is not surprising that this term takes on the sense of one conducting oneself in life before God. This becomes an important value in lives of the Hebrews (Jews). This idea becomes very important for the Jews in the Diaspora. Even in foreign lands, it was very important for the Jews to “walk uprightly” in a straight path before God.

Then the New Testament continues this cultural value. This idea is further developed in the failure to properly conduct oneself.  By straying from the gospel truth, Peter becomes a hypocrite. As with the Jews, Christians are also called to take the right steps forward in their faith.

Then the secular Henry Ford says that one finds the right path when one is walking with God. When you prioritize God, everything else will follow. But at least we’ll have help for our sore feet!

[Greek] κλέπτης (kleptēs), [Latin] fur: thief, robber, one who plunders, one who steals, false teacher; Mt.24:43, Lk. 12:33, Jn. 10:10, 1 Cor.6:10, 1 Thess.5:2,4, 1 Pet.4:15, 2 Pet.3:10, Rev.3:3, Rev.16:15, Jn. 12:6, Mt. 27:64, Mt. 28:13, Mt. 6:19, Jn. 10:8

The klepsydra (water-stealer) was used to record time for speeches in the courts

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term can mean thief, one who acts with subterfuge, one who conceals, one who hides, and one who bewitches. At certain times in history, stealing was sometimes justified or celebrated. The philosophy of Epicureanism, advocating hedonism, justifies stealing as a means to an end. Hermes was celebrated as an ingenious god, using its powers of misdirection, illusions, and mystery. Xenophon and Plato stated that a good general must have the traits of a thief, stealing the enemies’ plans and concealing his troops. Demosthenes makes mention of a klepysdra (water-stealer) in the courtroom. This water clock was used to time depositions.

Old Testament: This term refers to a thief, one who acts with subterfuge and secrecy, and one who steals. Stealing, considered as serious as murder, adultery, and false witness, can involve the following: gold, animals, men, things devoted to God, idols, and genuine words of God. God’s activity can never be compared with that of a thief. Thieving can be associated with use of the night, breaking in by force, unlawful means of entry (windows), self-seeking, secrecy, and violence.

New Testament: This term, meaning thief (one who steals), is primarily presented in a negatives sense (with a few exceptions). The thief is negatively presented as a betrayer, a criminal, one lacking in integrity, one accused, and one who is selfish. The thief is constructively presented as metaphor for watchfulness. Jesus warns the disciples to be watchful and ready for the coming of the Lord. Jesus presents the coming of the Lord as a thief preparing to break into a house. Paul also claims that the day of the Lord will come like a thief at night.

Scripture:

“Give orders, then, that the grave be secured until the third day, lest the disciples come and steal Him and say to the people, ‘He has been raised from the dead.’” Mt. 27:64

The Roman authorities, in their disbelief, thought that the disciples would “steal” Jesus’ body as the means to promote their theology.

“A thief comes only to steal and slaughter and destroy.” Jn. 10:10

A thief seeks to be selfish and to cause disruption.

“Be sure of this: if the master of the house had known the hour when the thief was coming, he would have not let his house be broken into.” Lk. 12:39

One must also be watchful for the coming of the Lord.

Conclusion:

Kleptomania, kleptocrat, furtive

I suppose that it was inevitable that in the Greco-Roman culture, the thief would be both criticized and admired to some extent. In this period, perhaps it is not so surprising that there would be a philosophy (philosophical school of thought) that would embrace such behavior. Used in a constructive context, these qualities can be utilized possibly for good (as in war). It is interesting to note that by the fourth century BC, the orator Demosthenes uses the water clock to record his time. I think we all could imagine the courtroom scene in Athens: when the taking of depositions interrupts his speech, Demosthenes says to the court official, “Stop the Water”!

In the Old Testament culture, being a thief was considered as a serious matter. Deceitful judges, who violates a defendant’s rights, steal the voices (of advocacy) for the defendant. The false prophet seeks to steal or misappropriate the words of the prophet or of God. The thief often sought to steal the shepherd’s sheep. The thief was viewed as selfish and destructive. The thief stands in stark contrast to Jesus’ message of serving and helping others. It is significant that one must be watchful for the Lord as if a thief will come into the night

In current times, the media often portrays the thief in a glamorous manner. “White hat” hackers are the good guys who work to protect systems and people. Sometimes, the government would often hire “gray hat” hackers to hack the real bad “black hat” hackers. Espionage is a topic of importance in current events. Governments are constantly seeking such experts in hacking, stealth, and programming to counter these threats.

A kleptocrat is a govt. leader who steals or squanders this resources from his country.  This is a corrupt leader, tyrant, or dictator. Pick a corrupt country. Most likely, you will find a kleptocrat.

‎[Greek] τέλος (telos), [Latin] finis: result, end, goal, limit, fulfillment, toll, endpoint, tax, custom, completion, result; Lk.22:37, 1Tim.1:5, 1Pet.1:9, Mt.26:58, Jm.5:11, Heb.6:8, 1 Pet. 4:17, Rev.21:6, Mk. 13:7, Mt.24:14, Mk.13:2, 1Cor.15:24, Mk. 13:13, Mt. 10:22, Jn.13:1,  1Thess.2:16, Lk. 18:5, 2 Cor.1:13, 1 Cor. 1:8, Rev. 2:26, Heb.6:11, Heb.3:14, 2 Cor.3:13, Lk. 1:33, Mk.3:26, Mt. 17:25, Rom.13:7, Rev.1:8, Heb. 3:6, 1 Tim.2:16

Hans Lippershey (1570-1619) is credited with inventing the first telescope

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term, used in a variety of ways, can mean an achievement (carrying out), power, completion (perfection), obligation, offering (to the gods), and a detachment. In Aeschylus’ Greek tragedy The Oresteia, Orestes is waiting for the carrying out of justice (intervention of the gods). Euripides’ play Medea explores how the lust of power can cause one’s demise. Philo of Alexandria mentions that man reaches perfection when he becomes inspired by God. Demosthenes claims, that on rare occasions, public service to the state should exempt one from paying a tax. The Greek tragedian Sophocles mentions that Heracles makes fruit offerings to Zeus. The Athenian statesman divided the population of Athens into groups so that people were not governed based on wealth and nobility.

Old Testament: Related to eight Hebrew terms, this term is also used in a variety of ways. This term essentially conveys the following: an execution of a task, a result, a tax, an act of divine worship. Execution of a task means bringing something to a conclusion or carrying out a plan. The result is described with various terminology: end, conclusion, close, goal, reward, limit, etc. These terms are spoken in ordinary and in eschatological (end time) senses. Oftentimes, there is a huge gulf (distance) between human wisdom and God’s wisdom. Taxes, tributes, and tolls are levied for God and for man. In more than fifty psalms are acts of divine worship. The Jewish expectation of the return of the Messiah find its expression in the Old Testament terminology: “the time which follows,” “the last time”, and “the days to come.”

That he may carry out all these plans (1Chr.29:19). Thus the heavens and the earth were finished (Gen. 2:1). And levy a tribute to the Lord of the men of war who went out to battle (Num. 31:28). Therefore they set over them taskmasters to afflict them with their burdens (Exod.1:11). Thine, O Lord, is the greatness, and the power, and the glory, and the victory (1Chr.29:11). Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter (Eccl.12:13). But in the end received only disgrace for his treachery (2Macc.5:7). Gather around, that I may tell you what is to happen to you in the days to come (Gen.49:1). Go, take your rest, you shall rise for your reward at the end of days (Dan.12:13). In the days to come, the mountain of the Lord’s house shall be established as the highest mountain (Isa.2:2).

New Testament: Like the Old Testament culture, this term takes on many various meanings in an eschatological sense. This term can mean a goal (aim), result, end, completion (fulfillment), cessation, and a tax. One aspect of this term indicates something being fulfilled. Scripture is fulfilled in Jesus. The sense of goal focuses on the community, rather than the individual. The goal is often related to its fulfillment. Results often point to the future in an eschatological sense. The context may be either temporal “when….” or conditional “if…”. Cessation refers to one process ending and another process beginning. The Law is set aside by the salvation of Christ. Taxes (tributes) occur as the means to support the govt. or civil infrastructure. There is no act of initiation in the New Testament.

Scripture:

“For I tell you that this scripture must be fulfilled in me.” Lk.22:37

Jesus speaks of scriptures of Isa. 53:12 upon Jesus fulfills.

“But of that day or hour, no one knows, neither the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father. Be watchful! You do not know when the time will come.” Mk. 13:32

Only the Father knows when this time of watchfulness and preparation will end.

“Pay to all their dues, taxes to whom taxes are due, toll to whom toll is due, respect to whom respect is due, honor to whom honor is due.” Rom. 13:7

Paul makes it clear to show respect to secular authorities.

Conclusion:

Telescope, telescopic, finish

I never realized that this term would have many varied uses and meanings. It is interesting to note that the Greek Hellenistic culture did not really have a significant focus on eschatology.

Obviously, this term was very important in the Old Testament culture, since it was related to eight Hebrew meanings. The Israelites (Jews) often viewed history in an eschatological sense. They were looking ahead for a new Messiah.

The New Testament culture also saw history in an eschatological sense. However, Jesus establishes a new paradigm in bringing a new order. Jesus comes and supersedes the Law, bringing in a new Messianic age.

The German optician Hans Lippershey, in his attempts to correct an extreme case of shortsightedness, discovers that a particular arrangement of lenses can magnify distant objects. Isaac Newton later develops the reflecting telescope. Interestingly, space telescopes actually look into the past in terms of seeing how the universe was created. The farther one looks into the distance of space, the farther one looks into the past in space. The end!

‎[Greek] στέλλω (stellō), [Latin] deviare, [Latin] subtrahere: to avoid, to keep away from, to withdraw from, to dissociate from, to abstain from, to restrain, to send; 2 Cor.8:20, 2 Thess.3:6

Replica of the HMS Bounty (with furled sails) in a stationary position

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term can mean to place, to set aside, to make ready, to put something in the right place, to provide with something, to set out, and to prepare for. These actions involve a willful act in sight of a fixed goal. This can involve making ready for battle for ships and troops. In a nautical sense, this term means to unfurl (unwrap) the ship’s sails in order for the ship to move. In a medical sense, Hippocrates speaks of avoiding overeating and excess exercise as a means to live a healthy life. The Stoic philosopher Epictetus speaks of public citizenship and isolation.

Old Testament: This term means to place oneself at disposal, to be available, and to prepare for something. Examples include priestly service and personal attributes. She is clothed with strength and dignity (Prov. 31:25). Bestowing mercy down to the thousandth generation (Exod. 20:6). For to men, she is an unfailing treasure (Wis. 7:14). Those women who had recently been arrayed for marriage abandoned the bridal chambers, and in neglected proper modesty, in a disorderly rush flocked together in the city (3 Macc. 1:19)

New Testament: Only found twice, this term primarily means to avoid, shun, or to keep away from an activity. In Thessalonica, Paul warned the Christians to avoid any association with those who neglect work and act disorderly. These people did not act in the tradition received from Paul. In Corinth, there evidently appeared to be some confusion of the management (custody) of the collection for the poor. Paul was warning them to avoid any temptation concerning the collection.

Scripture:

“This we desire to avoid, that anyone blame us about this lavish gift administered by us.” 2 Cor.8:20

Paul warns others to avoid the temptation about keeping these collections for the poor.

“We instruct you, brothers, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, to shun any brother who conducts himself in a disorderly way and not according to the tradition they received from us.” 2 Thess.3:6

Paul warns other who neglect work and act disorderly.

Conclusion:

Apostle, diastole, deviate, subtract

I was surprised by the wide range of uses of this term in the Greek Hellenistic culture. Such examples ranged from the obvious to the mysterious. It was interesting to learn what furling (unfurling) means in the operation of a ship. It is probably not surprising that Hippocrates would give such advice in light of the excess drinking and eating among some wealthy and influential Greeks. Even still good medical advice today: moderation.

Perhaps the priestly role provides the best illustration of what it means in one being set aside. This provides a further glimpse of this and other vocations. Paul considered himself as a spiritual father to his followers in many cities. Paul was constantly concerned about his spiritual children.

An apostle is one who has been sent out. The preposition apo- means away. Essentially, an apostle is one sent away. Diastole refers to the relaxed condition of the heart when it is fully dilated with blood. The preposition dia- means apart. Diastole means a drawing apart, distinction, or separation.

Furling a ship’s sails means to wrap the sails. This is done to prevent damage from a storm. On the other hand, unfurling the sails means to unwrap the sails in order for the ship to sail. So, it is now time to depart with sails unfurled.

[Greek] σπείρω (speirō), [Latin] seminare: to sow, to scatter, to receive seed, to sow seed; Mt.13:3, Mt.25:24, Mk.4:3, Lk.12:24, Jn.4:36, 1Cor.9:11, 1Cor.15:36, 2Cor.9:6, Jas.3:18

Sower at Sunset by Vincent Van Gogh (1888): The sower throwing seeds representing the eternal cycle of agricultural life

Background Information:

Secular Greek: This term means to sow, to create, to scatter, to disseminate, to disperse, to generate, and to beget. Aristotle claimed that spirit was transmitted by the male seed. In Aristophanes’ play Clouds, the poets constantly seek to plant new ideas (seeds) upon the audience. In his other play Birds, he makes reference to orators who plant corrupt ideas. Euripides refers to the break-up (dissolution) of part of the population to other regions.

Old Testament: This term is related to various Hebrew terms. This term is frequently used with slightly varying nuances for the diaspora of the people. The Diaspora is the spreading of the Jews beyond Israel. The seeds aim toward the harvest, salvation, blessing, and positive values. Sowing comes from the direction of God, who has an appointed seedtime and harvest. The focus is on man as the sower and man’s seed in salvation history. You yourselves I will scatter among the nations at the point of my drawn sword (Lev.26:33). I winnowed them with the fan in every city gate (Jer.15:7). Then they shall know that I am the Lord, when I disperse them among the nations and scatter them over foreign lands (Ezek. 12:15). The days are coming, says the Lord, when I will seed the house of Israel and the house of Judah with the seed of man and the seed of beast (Jer. 31:27). All the sown and along the Nile shall dry up and blow away, and be no more (Isa.19:7).

New Testament: This term is prominently used in a literal sense to sow (scatter), which is found in the parable of the sower, the parable of the wheat and weeds, and the parable of the mustard seed. In addition, the seed is referred to the Word and as the one hears the Word. Paul refers to God as one who supplies seed (gifts) and natural needs. Paul also refers to the seed as a body, one’s generosity, and one’s actions. James refers to sowing the fruit of righteousness.

Scripture:

“Make no mistake: God is not mocked, for a person will reap only what he sows.” Gal.6:7

Man wills sow to the flesh or the spirit. One’s actions will have their consequences.

“He proposed another parable to them. ‘The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed that a person took and sowed in a field.’” Mt. 13:31

The small sown mustard seed can become a large tree.  Small efforts can yield abundant results.

The one who supplies seed to the sower and bread for food will supple and multiply your seed and increase the harvest of your righteousness.” 2Cor.9:10

God is capable of overwhelming generosity. He will provide in abundance, supplying ones’ natural needs.

Seminaries: Originally, this term meant plant nursery or seed plot. First recorded in the 1580’s, this term becomes a school for training priests. Up until the 1930’s, this term was commonly used for any school. The Bethlehem Female Seminary was founded in Germantown Pennsylvania in 1742. The primary task of the seminary was for professional preparation.

Conclusion:

Spore, Diaspora, sporadic, semen, seminal, seminary, seminarian

It was interesting to discover the quite nuanced senses of this term. I suppose one cannot get more nuanced than poets planting seeds (ideas) into the audience’s minds or orators spreading corrupt words.

Even in the simpler Old Testament culture, this term is used in interesting ways. The Old Testament introduces harvesting, winnowing, begetting family lines, and sowing. The man’s seed (ability to procreate/semen) was very important in continuing the family name. Sowing becomes a very important teaching tool in the parables in the New Testament culture. It is interesting to see God as a sower providing an abundance of generosity and natural needs.

As you already know, sporadic means occurring in scattered places (happening at intervals). On some level, some things have not changed. Artistic productions, such as a book, movie, play, or drama, often “throw” provocative ideas (seeds) toward its intended audience. Some people also often “plant” offensive thoughts, ideas, or speech towards others. Many also become offended. Evidently, we already have both.

Seminal means full of possibilities, highly influential, creative, innovative, and original in the sense of having a basis for future development or research.

‎[Greek] σείω (seiō), [Latin] commutus, [Latin] motare, [Latin] exterrere, [Latin] movere, [French] s’agiter: to shake, to rock, to agitate, to have a seizure, to cause to tremble, to throw into a tremor, to quake, to move to and from, to cause great anxiety; Mt. 28:4, Mt. 21:10, Mk.15:11, Lk.23:5, Mt.27:51, Heb.12:26, Rev.6:13, Mt. 8:24

Legend says that when Poseidon strikes or move his trident, earthquakes will follow

Background Information:

Ancient Greek: This term means to denote violent movement (lightning), to shake, to move to and fro, and to disturb. In Greek literature, there is mention of shaking a spear, a door, the reins (mane) and the head. In addition, there is mention of disturbing the heart, political events and cosmic disturbances. Greek legends claim that Poseidon, god of the sea and earthquakes, by moving or shaking his trident, causes frequent earthquake and shipwrecks. Therefore, earthquakes were regarded as omens, unlucky events, or manifestations of the gods’ anger. A theophany (a manifestation to humankind of a god) is closely associated with earthquakes. In addition, ancient scientists woefully attempted to explain this phenomena due to air congestion, volcanic action, and subterranean water movement.

Old Testament: It is interesting to note that the earth is personified as shaking because of events which disturb its order. Because of the prevalence of seismic phenomena in Palestine (Jordan rift valley), there are vivid descriptions of earthquakes in the Old Testament. Generally, earthquakes, winds, storm, fire, and shaking of heaven and earth often accompany God’s appearance. These theophanies lead to various outcomes: destruction, deliverance, judgment, and holy war. He shakes the earth out of its place (Job. 9:6). Under three things the earth trembles (Prov.30:21). The idols of Egypt tremble before the Lord (Isa. 19:1). The whole mountain trembled violently (Exo. 19:18). The earth will reel like a drunkard (Isa.24:20). The earth quaked and the heaven shook before God (Psa.6:8).

New Testament: This term is used to convey spiritual disturbances, riotous excitement, earthquakes, and cosmic disturbances. God’s voice shakes the earth, causing earthquakes and a torn veil in the sanctuary. For different reasons (purposes), both Jesus and the chief priests stir up the crowd. In separate circumstances, Jesus’ entrance in Jerusalem and His resurrected appearance caused great anxiety toward others. The New Testament continues the Jewish and Hellenistic theme of shaking which accompanies the appearance or death of a deity. By His death, the Messianic age is ushered in.

Scripture:

“The guards were shaken with fear of Him and became like dead men.” Mt. 28:4

Upon seeking the resurrected form of Jesus, the guards were struck with fear and trembling.

“And when He entered Jerusalem, the whole city was shaken and asked, ‘Who is this?’” Mt. 21:10

Jesus’ entrance into Jerusalem caused some some to experience anxiety and apprehension. The whole city was thrown into an uproar.

“And behold, the veil of the sanctuary was torn into two from top to bottom. The earth quaked, rocks were split.” Mt.27:51

Upon the death of Jesus, the earth shook and the veil was torn. These were the results (consequences) from Jesus’ death.

Conclusion:

Seismic, seismology, seize, seizure, commotion, motion, terror, terrified, move, movement, agitate, agitation

I suppose it makes sense that people would think that the gods would be the cause of earthquakes and other such phenomena. This also furthers the idea that such phenomena would be omens or consequences of man’s actions.

It is perhaps not surprising that the Old Testament culture would further develop the notion of a higher power causing disturbances. Theophanies, manifestations of God’s presence, lead to various phenomena and consequences. I did not realize that Palestine had significant seismic activity.

The New Testament culture further develops the notion of theophanies, leading to a new Messianic age. This is perhaps best known by earthquakes and a torn veil (in the temple) after the death of Jesus. It was once thought that the moon was the source of causing one to be an epileptic. Such person, affected by seizures, was considered to be “moon struck” or a lunatic.

I remember many years ago watching The Poseidon Adventure from 1973.  I forgot that Leslie Nielsen (in a serious role) was the captain. I didn’t know the significance of meaning of Poseidon back then. Having a luxury liner named Poseidon is really a disaster waiting to happen! At least it wasn’t a total disaster.  Maureen McGovern won the 1972 Academy Award for Best Original Song for “The Morning After.” I loved that song! Beautiful voice, melody, lyrics, and message for life’s storms (difficulties)!

[Greek] κοσμέω (kosmeō), [Latin] adornare: to order, to adorn, to put in order, trimmed, to arrange, to garnish, to decorate, to furnish, to embellish, to beautify, to dress, to make attractive, to bring to order; Mt. 25:7, Rev.21:2, 1Tim. 2:9, 1Pet.3:5, Mt.12:44, Lk. 11:25, Tit.2:10, Lk.21:5, Rev.21:19, Mt. 23:29

Prisca (Priscilla), a fellow co-worker with St. Paul, wears a unibrow, a popular Greco-Roman beauty practice

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term, meaning to order, to furnish, and to adorn, is presented in a variety of uses and nuanced meanings. In various contexts, order and adornment are interconnected. In a military sense, this involved the setting of an army, the ordering of combatants, and the conscripting of countryman into the armed forces. Homer makes mention of marshalling (conscripting) tribes in occupied countries. Woman adorned themselves with jewelry and cosmetics. In Hellenism, virtues were considered the personal adornments of a person. Therefore, heroes and highly respected people were viewed as those who adorned (brought honor) to their country.

Ancient Greco-Roman Women’s Makeup: Pale skin and the “no-makeup” look were highly sought. Women painted their faces with white lead or chalk. Slathered creams of oil honey and olive oil were used as moisturizers. Red iron oxide and ochre clays were applied to lips and cheeks. Charcoal and olive oil were applied to the eyes. The unibrow was highly desired, using a dark powder to enhance and to connect the brows. Unbeknownst to those times, lead poisoning most likely lead to many early deaths!

Old Testament: Related to five other Hebrew terms, this Greek term essentially means to order, to adorn, and to arrange. Again, adorning is expressed in various ways. Preparing and arranging are connected with table settings and the Temple preparations. Adorning involve cosmetics, jewelry, clothing, metaphorical imagery, and behavior. These varied senses of adorning also continue in the New Testament. Come here, stranger, set the table (Sir.29:26). With the arranging of the sacrifices for the Most High (Sir.50:14). Shading her eyes with cosmetics (Jer. 4:30). I adorned you with jewelry (Ezek. 16:11). He also decorated the building with precious stones (2 Chr.3:6). They adorned their style of life with the good deeds of upright people (3 Macc.3:5). He would adorn   with the finest offerings the holy temple which he had previously despoiled (2 Macc.9:16). Thus prides adorns them as a necklace (Psa.73:6).

New Testament: This term conveys the sense of to adorn, to trim, to beautify, to decorate, to clean up (order), and to attain an attitude of conduct. As in the Old Testament, adorning takes on various meanings. Trimming and ordering pertain to properly working wicks and cleaned up homes. Decorating and beautifying apply to women, temples, precious stones, and jewels.

Scripture:

“Slaves are to be under the control of their masters in all respects, giving them satisfaction, not talking back to them or stealing from them but exhibiting complete good faith, so as to adorn the doctrine of God our savior in every way.” Titus 2:9-10

Titus is encouraging the slaves, despite their station in life in slavery, to show Christian behavior to their masters. Adorning means assuming an attitude or code of conduct.

“But upon returning, it finds the home swept clean and put in order.” Lk. 11:25

An unclean spirit finds a home in order but brings other spirits in order to reside in this home. This contributes to this evil generation who refuse to accept Jesus. This leads to worse situations than before.

“While some people were speaking about how the temple was adorned with costly stone and votive offerings.” Lk. 21:5
The temple, an important institution for offering sacrifices, was appropriately decorated and supplied with precious stones and offerings.

Conclusion:

Cosmetics, cosmos, adorn

It is interesting to note that since ancient Greek times, there seems to be a multifaceted relationship between adorning, order, cosmetics, jewelry, and virtues. I would have never thought that this term would be used in a military sense. However, it makes sense when this involves order (discipline), virtues, and heroism. In ancient Greek thought, virtue was considered an adornment of one’s character. This term’s sense of order also is associated with the universe (cosmos).

It would make sense that this term would be used in preparing and furnishing the temple. It is interesting to note that there is explicit mention of cosmetics in the Old Testament. However, I think it is much more significant to note that adorning can also mean taking on an appropriate attitude or code of conduct.  Perhaps, this value derives from Hellenism.

It is interesting to discover that this term would be used in trimming and cleaning. Perhaps, this idea is tied to the idea of having order. In regard to codes of conduct, slaves, in spite of their captivity, were still encouraged to show respect, befitting of Christians, to their masters. Rev.21:2 shows a new Jerusalem prepared as a bride adorned for her husband. This images the marriage relationship between God and man.

Now there exists a multi-billion dollar cosmetic industry, accommodating both women and men. In a sense, human nature remains constant. As in the past, the current cultural norms generally shape cultural attitudes (such as attractiveness) and uses for cosmetics.

‎[Greek] ἐκλεκτός (eklektos), [Latin] selecti: chosen, elected, chosen ones, picked out from the larger group, chosen from; Mt.22:14, Mk.13:20, Lk.18:7, Rom.8:33, Col. 3:12, 1Tim.;21, 2Tim.2:10, 1Pet.2:6,9, Rev.17:14, Lk.23:35, Mt.20:16, Lk.9:35, Jn.1:34

Thucydide, an Athenian military tactician, makes reference to elite (chosen) soldiers.

Background Information:

Secular Greek: This term predominately means choice, select, and the best quality. Thucydides, the Athenian historian and general, recounts the fifth century war between Sparta and Athens. He commented that Athens committed 300 chosen men of arms (soldiers) to attack the Syracusans. The ancient Roman constitution required that the jury (judices selecti) was to be drawn by lot in civil cases. Plato stated that election is always accompanied by some kind of obligation or task for the well-being of all members of the community.

Old Testament: This term can be used figuratively referring to the election of Israel. The general secular use refers to the quality (purity) of plants, animals, and minerals. When referring to persons, this term denotes young men and chosen fighters. The religious sense of this term can refer to God, Moses (and other prominent people), God’s people, sacred trees and bulls, and the bride Israel. The common cultic sense refers to offered sacrifices, oil of anointing, and stones (cornerstones) of the Temple. Simon sent to Antioch’s support two thousand elite troops (1Macc.15:26). Who burned the holy city and left its streets desolate (Sir. 49:6). Toward the faithful, you (God) are faithful (Psa.17:26). Take the finest spices (Ex.30:23). Here is my servant whom I uphold, my chosen one with whom I am well pleased (Isa.42:1). Moses, the chosen leader (Psa. 105:23).

New Testament: This term, essentially meaning chosen (elect), is always used in an eschatological sense in the Synoptic gospels. Throughout scripture God makes a distinction between those who are called (elected) and those who will not be called. This invitation of election implies grace, obedience, responsibility, and decision. This eschatological election replaces Israel and puts its hope in the coming of Christ. For Luke, the elect is brought in connection with suffering. For Paul, the aim of election is love. For Peter, the Gentile Christians belong to the community of the elect.

Scripture:

“Many are invited, but few are chosen.” Mt. 22:14

The parable of the wedding feast is likened to the kingdom of heaven. God invites many, but those who are elected to enter the kingdom of heaven must the wear the wedding garment of good deeds. A few will be elected to enter into heaven.

“This is My chosen Son; listen to Him.” Lk. 9:35

This is declaration of the heavenly voice of the Father. Jesus’ words must be heeded.

“The chosen one at Babylon sends you greeting, as does Mark, my son.” 1 Pet.5:13

The chosen one refers to the persecuted Christian community in Rome. Babylon is a code word for Rome.

Conclusion:

Select, eclectic

In ancient Greece it was an important cultural value to serve the state in some capacity (govt., military services, etc.) Even in these institutions, there would be those who be elite or “the best of the best.”

In the Old Testament, it would only be natural that this term would apply to God, Israel, and important people that God would inspire. It is interesting that Isa. 42:1 would have the same language as with Lk.9:35. This chosen servant may have applied to either an individual or Israel.

Then it would follow that this term would refer to Jesus. This term also infers a calling (vocation). Most notably is the example of a priest.

It is interesting to note that this term would apply to common items (food, produce, meat, grains). In today’s world, supermarkets often sell select (prime) meats and other foods.  Stores also sell high end watches, furniture, electronics, and other deluxe items. Eclectic means selecting and using the best from various sources. This also reminds me of the military elite (Navy Seals, marines, other elite military services). The expression “The Few. The Proud.” comes to mind.

[Greek] δεξιός (dexios), [Latin] dexter: right, the right hand, of the right, belonging to the right, correct, a place of honor (authority), skillful, do secretly; Eph.1:20, 1 Pet.3:22, Col.3:1, Heb.1:3, Heb.12:2, Mt. 25:31, Act. 2:33-34, Act. 5:31, Mt. 22:4, Act. 7:56, Rom. 8:34, Mt.6:3, Mk.16:19, Gal. 2:9, Mt. 20:23, Mt.10:40, Heb. 8:1, Mt. 6:3

Jacques-Louis David’s Oath of the Horatii (1784): Three brothers salute toward three swords held by their father

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: Since ancient times, there has been a deep cultural bias for the right and the right hand. The majority of the population is right-handed. This term attains the meaning of what is favorable or honorable. The right side is the place of honor in sitting or walking. Oaths, agreements, and alliances were concluded with the giving of the right hands. Ornithomancy was a form of reading omens (divination) and observing bird flight patterns. The Greeks, facing northward, would see birds on their right as a favorable omen. In the Odyssey an eagle flying to the right was interpreted as the coming of Odysseus.

Old Testament: This term takes on the sense of right, right direction, south (right side when facing east), righteousness, a place of honor or authority, and the right hand of God (divine power). This Greek term is related to the Hebrew yamin. East was considered forward in ancient Israel. When facing east, the south was on the right. Yemen derives its name from being on the southern Arabian peninsula. Benjamin (Benyamin) means “son of my right hand.” The Lord’s right hand strikes with power (Psa. 117:15). You who deliver with your right arm those who seek refuge from their foes (Psa.16:7). Bathsheba, the king’s mother, sat at Solomon’s right (3 Kgs. 2:19). Take your throne at my right hand, while I may your enemies your footstool (Psa. 109:1). Long life is in her right hand, in her left are riches and honor (Prov.3:16). Thou will depart to the right hand (Gen.13:9). Israel stretched out his right hand (Gen.48:14). David and his men were in the wilderness of Maon, in the plain on the south of Jeshimon (1 Sam.23:34).

New Testament: This term takes on the sense of right, a place of honor, Jesus’ authority, and the right hand. Jesus will divide man in the great judgment. The right hand is the place of honor, righteousness and salvation for His sheep. In contrast, the left side is set aside for the goats. This term is used to express the place of authority for Jesus and the Father. Christ will ascend at the right hand of the Father. Jesus rightfully claims His Davidic Sonship and Messiahship.

Scripture:

“But when you give alms, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing.” Mt. 6:3

This is an idiomatic expression about not letting others know about the good that one does.  The right hand is also seen as the good hand.

“The Lord Jesus was taken up into heaven and took His seat at the right hand of God.” Mk.16:19

The right hand indicates Jesus position of authority. One sits on the right is given a position of honor.

“And when they recognized the grace bestowed upon me, James and Kephas and John who were reputed to be pillars, gave me and Barnabas their right hands in partnership, that we should go to the Gentiles and they to the circumcised.” Gal. 2:9

Right hands were given to seal an oath or partnership.

Turning the other cheek:

What is a common perception of turning the other cheek? This does not mean becoming a complete doormat in allowing to be attacked by an aggressor. “Ok. You slapped me on my right cheek. Why don’t also you slap me on my left cheek.”

How did the Roman soldiers view the Jews? The Jews were considered as second class citizens. Soldiers tended to be right-handed. When Romans struck an “inferior” person, they would give a back-handed slap on that person’s right cheek.

How did the Roman soldiers strike someone considered their equal? The soldier would punch that person’s left cheek with his fist.

What does turning the other cheek accomplish? The Jewish person forces his Roman attacker to treat him as an equal. Jesus wants the Jews to stand up and demand respect. This action is intended to activate the soldier’s conscience

Conclusion:

Dexterity, dexterous

Since ancient times, it looks like that being right-handed was highly favored. It is interesting to note that the Latin term for left is sinistra (sinister). It was also very important to complete oaths, agreements, and alliances with right hands. Perhaps it is also not surprising that right also means correct.

I think we all can identify God with “rightness.” It was even important that aspects of God would be described with human qualities. The right hand of God indicates authority and power. I suppose that it would make sense that the right hand would be considered the good hand. In Jn. 21:6 Jesus even instructed the Apostles to cast their net on the right side of the boat.

In addition to forgoing violence, turning the other cheek seems to be a shrewd and effective means to challenge the aggressor’s attitudes and conscience. This method becomes a peaceful means to force that person to see his victim on an equal basis.

[Greek] δαιμόνιον (daimonion), [Latin] diabolus, [Latin} spiritus: demon, evil spirit, god, angel; Mt. 7:22, Mk.16:9,17, Act.17:18, Mt.8:31, Mk.5:12, Rev.18:2, 1Cor. 10:20, other scripture references

Socrates’ and His Daemon: daemeons were lesser deities (guiding spirits)

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: The Greek belief of animism holds that everything (plants, animals, people, mountains, and stars) have a soul or spirit. Greek philosophers and teachers, who originally opposed animism, were still influenced by these ideas. This term is used both for deities and in a philosophical sense.

Divine powers: This term is used to denote gods and supernatural powers. This sense indicates a protective deity watching over one’s life, a divinely related element of men, and a conscience. Epictetus refers to this as one’s “personal guardian spirit.” In a dramatic sense, this term refers to anything (destiny, death, good, evil fortune, fate) which overtakes man. The tragedian Euripedes would apply this literary device “deus ex machina” (god from the machine) in which a deity would intervene and provide a solution to resolve the plot narrative.

Philosophical systems: This term was generally understood as a general divine power, personal intermediary being, and abstract force. These interpretations helped to explain the philosophers’ lack of understanding of the world, myths, and popular beliefs. In response to popular beliefs, philosophy sets heroes alongside demons. More detailed doctrine indicates the notion that demons are intermediary beings. Many philosophical doctrines also developed the notion of demons possessing men.

Old Testament: The Old Testament culture contains elements similar to the popular Greek belief in spirits. Examples include spirits of the dead, invocation of the spirits, magic, sacrifices, and idolatry. The notion of demons as evil influences is more fully developed in the Old Testament. Due to the religious prohibitions, the sphere of demonology appears only in the fringes of society. The Old Testament culture develops a special name, angel, describing such power as God’s messengers. It is noteworthy that even destructive or avenging angels are under the rule of God. Inquire of mediums and fortune-tellers who chirp and mutter (Isa.8:19). For a sin like divination is rebellion (1 Sam. 15:23). There is no sorcery against Jacob (Num.23:23). No longer shall they offer sacrifice to the satyrs (Lev.17:7). They offer sacrifice to demons, to “no-gods” (Deut.32:17). But when the angel stretched forth his hand toward Jerusalem to destroy it (2 Sam.24:16). The spirit of the Lord had departed from Saul and he was tormented by an evil spirit sent by the Lord (1 Sam.16:14).

New Testament: This term, predominantly meaning demon, can also refer to a pagan (god). There are no references to spirits of the dead. The individual influence of demons is diminished in the New Testament. Instead, demons are mostly seen as agents (angels) of Satan. In other words, the kingdom of God is pitted against the kingdom of Satan. Another aspect of evil comes from the sinful nature of man. Examples of possession may not only involve sickness, but also from one’s sinful nature. Jewish tradition states that one who is possessed should not be heard. The Jews, unable to accept Jesus’ claims and actions, believed Him to be possessed and therefore must be rejected and dishonored.

Scripture:

“They pleaded with Him, ‘Send us into the swine. Let us enter them.’” Mk.5:12

The demons, under the command of Satan, already know Jesus.  This becomes a battle between the kingdom of God and the kingdom of Satan.

“Many of them said, ‘He is possessed and out of his mind; why listen to Him?’” Jn.10:20

As the Good Shepherd, Jesus lays His down His life for His sheep.  Jesus claim that He receives this power from His Father in heaven. The Jews, upon hearing this, claim that Jesus is possessed and should not be heard.

“Others said, ‘He sounds like a promoter of foreign deities, because He was preaching about Jesus and Resurrection.’” Act. 17:18

Paul was growing exasperated at the sight of idols in Athens. The Epicurean and Stoic philosophers thought Jesus was worshiping other idols. This term takes on the traditional Greek understanding of idols or gods.

Conclusion:

Daemon, demon, demonic, diabolic, spirit

It was interesting to discover that daemons were not really considered as evil beings during the Greek Hellenistic period. Instead, these beings were considered as guides or helpers. This is not surprising in a time when one would often call upon a god for help in a given situation. It would then follow that the intervention of gods would be commonplace in literature and plays. Even Greek philosophers could not fully debunk the notion of gods and demons. Instead, these philosophers often expanded on this notion of these beings.

It is significant that the Old Testament would develop the notion of the evil character of demons. In addition, the idea of angels as agents or intercessors also develops in this time period. Angels become instruments of both bad and good results. Even God uses His angels for destructive purposes for the Passover and the plagues/pestilences in Egypt.

By the time of the New Testament period, angels fall in line either under the direction of God or Satan. With their understanding about possession, perhaps it is not surprising in how the Jews reacted to Jesus. The Jews would immediately reject and dishonor Jesus, refusing even to listen to Him.

‎[Greek] γράμμα (gramma), [Latin] cautionem, [Latin] littera: that which is drawn or written, a letter, a writing, a note, and epistle, a book, a scripture, a record, a character, a letter of the alphabet, a record of debts, a written statement of accounts, a bill, a document; Gal. 6:11, 2 Cor.3:6-7, Jn. 5:47, Rom.2:27,29, Rom. 7:6, 2Tim.3:15, Act.28:21, Lk. 16:6,7, Jn. 7:15, Act. 26:24

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: Although used in many contexts, this term essentially means what is inscribed or written. Examples include inscribed tattoos, engraved symbols on gold headbands, names inscribed on a breastplate, and hieroglyphics. Written documents can include royal decrees and letters, letters of reference, contracts, bills of deeds, law suit proceedings, and deeds of gifts. In some situations written records were used in contrast with unwritten national customs and divine law. This term, also referring to education, includes reading, instruction, writing, knowledge, and interpretation of the law.

Old Testament: This term refers to reading and the instruction of the Law, epithets, and specific books. The scribes take on the important role of inscribing, interpreting, and instructing scripture and the Law. Several examples are epithets of heroes (and notable figures) in scripture and classical literature. While not referring to scripture as a whole, this term can refer to individual books of the Pentateuch. The plate of the sacred diadem was made of pure gold and inscribed, as on a seal engraving: “Sacred to the Lord.” (Ex.39:30). The passage occurred in which Mordecai reported Bagathan and Teresh, two of the royal eunuchs who guarded the entrance, for seeking to lay hands on King Ahasuerus. (Est 6:2). At their prescribed times, you will be careful to present to me the food offerings that are due me (Num. 28:2). You shall levy a tax for the Lord on the warriors who went out to combat (Num.31:28).

New Testament: This term, presented in a varied and nuanced manner, can mean an alphabet letter, the mode of education/instruction, a letter, scriptures, and writing. This term is tied to another similar Greek word γραφή (writing). The Old Testament is properly defined by its prescriptions rather than its writings. Knowledge of these different terms provides a better understanding of how the Old Testament laws are superseded by the New Testament teachings of Jesus.

Scripture:

“The Jews were amazed and said, ‘How does He know scripture without having studied?’” Jn. 7:15

Education and instruction in the Law are very closed related in Judaism. The disparagement of Jesus implies that He is not fit to teach. This scripture speaks more to the attitudes of the Jews who mock Jesus.

“But if you do not believe his (Moses) writing, how will you believe My words?” Jn. 5:47

It is presupposed that the authoritative Moses Old Testament scriptures bear witness to Christ. If the Jew does not accept the authority, he then will not accept the authority (word) of Christ.

“Indeed, those who are physically uncircumcised but carry out the law will pass judgment on you, with your written law and circumcision, who break the law.” Rom. 2:27

The meaning of the Law cannot be just defined by the Letter of this Law. The true meaning is prescription of the Law, which characterized why was is written or prescribed.

“But what does it say? ‘The word is near you, in your mouth and in your heart’ (that is the word of faith that we preach),” Rom. 10:8

The word which is near is not writing in the convention sense, but the Word, guided by the Spirit of Christ.  Paul speaks the legal and moral authority of the Old Testament which has been superseded.

Etymology: The Latin noun cautionem means a bill, guarantee, or pledge. This noun is related to the Latin cavere, meaning to be on guard. By the 1650’s, this noun becomes a word of warning.

Conclusion:

Grammar, grammatical, caution, letter, literal

It is not surprising that this term would play an important role in the instruction, teaching, and interpretation of the Law. There is strong evidence that the scribes did much of the work in recording the Old Testament. They were given the responsibility of recording the inspired words of God. Like the New Testament, this term can refer to a book of scripture (Old Testament).

It is very significant to note that Paul makes a distinction between the Old Testament and the New Testament. Paul refers to the Old Testament not only as γράμμα (letter), but also as a prescription of the Law with moral and legal authority. Yet, Paul refers to the New Testament as γραφή (writing) as a new form of authority (from Christ) which surpasses the Old Testament message.

It is also important to remember, that during the New Testament times, the only existing scriptures were the Old Testament. The New Testament was not yet put into written form nor yet canonized. That process to determine the inspired books of the New Testament will come centuries later. The transmission of faith (church teachings) was carried out by oral stories and given (spoken) to later generations of people through oral tradition. This is why Apostolic Tradition (big T) has become one of the three pillars of the Church. This is in contrast to normal tradition (small t).

[Greek] ἀποστασία (apostasia): defection, revolt, a falling away, a defection from the truth, apostasy, an abandonment, a renunciation, departure; Act.21:21, 2Thess,2:3

The gates of Hades (hell) located at Caesarea Phillipi

Background Information:

Greek-Roman Era: This term apostasia refers to an event, not a process, which leads to a rebellion. Apo- refers to moving away. Stasis means from a stand. Essentially, this term refers to a political event (rebellion) moving away from the current political status. Gaius Julius Vindex, a Roman governor, rebelled against the Emperor Nero in support of another Roman governor. However, Vindex was defeated in his attempts to replace Nero.

Old Testament: This term is presented in both a religious and political context. Political rebellions occur in the context of the Jews opposing unrighteous kings (leaders). Religious rebellions occur when pagan practices are imposed upon the subjected Hebrews, who are restricted from observing their own Covenant worship. Religious apostasy also occurs when the Jews fall away from God in order to worship other idols. The books of Maccabees provided plentiful examples of the Jews rebelling against authority. The king’s officers are in charge of forcing the apostasy to the city of Modein (1Macc.2:15). The Jews were rebels and kept setting up blockades (1 Esr.2:23). We have acted out of rebellion (Josh.22:22). We have restored and consecrated all the articles which King Ahaz had thrown away during his reign (2 Chr. 29:19). Let it be known to the king that the Jews who came up from you to us have arrived and are now rebuilding this rebellious and evil city (Ezra 4:12). Your own wickedness chastises you (Jer.2:19).

New Testament: Essentially, this term is used in only a religious sense. Paul is accused (by the Jews) of teaching the Jews, living among the Gentiles, to abandon the Jewish practice of circumcision. The other example refers to rebellion in an absolute sense in the latter times. This event is tied to a complete apostasy from God. This is applied to the apostasy of Christians from their faith to error and unrighteousness. This also relates to the time of false prophets and those who will fall away.

Scripture:

“They have been informed that you are teaching all the Jew who live among the Gentiles to abandon Moses and that you are telling them not to circumcise their children or to observe their customary practices.” Act.21:21

The leaders of the Jewish Christian of Jerusalem inform Paul that he has encouraged the Jews of the Diaspora to abandon the Mosaic Law. Paul mentions that the Gentiles are no longer bound by the Jewish laws.

“Let no one deceive you in any way. For unless the apostasy comes first and the lawless one is revealed, the one doomed to perdition,” 2 Thess.2:3

This event is perceived as an event of the last days

Scriptural evidence refuting the claim that Jesus’ Church apostatized (“fell off the rails”) in doctrine.

Amos 8:11-14, Amos 9:8-10, 2 Thess.2:1-3, Dan. 7:13-14, Mt. 28:18-20, Lk.1:33, Mt.16:18, etc.

“And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my Church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it.” Mt. 16:18

This has become a fundamentally important scripture passage concerning correct doctrinal teachings. Jesus Himself makes a very bold declaration about the durability and longevity of His Church. One can therefore only make a few certain conclusions about this scripture. If Jesus is lying (or insane), then how can we believe or accept anything else He says?  If Jesus is stating the truth, then we should accept that Jesus somehow makes provisions to allow His Church to continue to teach the Truth forever over time. This provision is made possible with the help of the Holy Spirit through the mechanism of papal infallibility.

Papal Infallibility: Many have common misconceptions about what papal infallibility is. Infallibility is not the absence of sin. Infallibility does not mean expertise in the subject matter.  Essentially, infallibility means that one is prevented (by the protection of the Holy Spirit) from stating doctrinal error. This can also apply to the pope and group of bishops (cardinals) together as a group as it pertains to important Church dogma. Hence, this also applies to important Church councils throughout history.

Conclusion:

Apostasy, apostatize

During the Greco-Roman era, there would also be an apostasy in religious terms. The Greek and Romans would often impose their pagan beliefs on the Jews or Christians. Likewise, there would be some who would willingly fall into idol worship. The same could be said for the Old Testament cultures.

Since the beginning of the Church, over time there has been a proliferation of over 33,000 churches and denominations. This always pertains to the question of doctrine. This immediately begs the question, “Which church has the correct doctrine?”  This also brings up another question, “Did God intend to establish one Church or over 33,000 churches (and denominations)?” I think we can figure out the simplest answer to that question.  Yet, God, in His infinite love for us, has given man free will to have the choice to create new churches and denominations.

It is significant to note that Peter made his confession at Caesarea Phillipi, a place where a rock enclosed the gates of Hades (hell). Jesus stated that Peter was going to be another type of rock (foundation) for His Church. I think we can all agree that Peter was not a scripture scholar. Peter needed all the spiritual help he can get! Any insight or help that Peter received came from the Holy Spirit. So the Holy Spirit guided Peter into stating Jesus was the Messiah, the Son of God. Peter was given papal infallibility!

[Greek] ἄτομος (atomos), [Latin] momento: uncut, indivisible, a moment in time, what happens in an instant, that cannot be cut into two, infinitely small, an extremely short period of time; 1Cor. 15:52

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: Greek philosophers posited (speculated) the existence of invisible (and indivisible) pieces of matter. The philosopher Democritus named these invisible particles as atomos. He argued that atoms must be so small that they are invisible and indestructible. These solid and uniform atoms can move through empty space until stopped by solid matter. He thought of the idea of atoms like the aroma of freshly baked bread. Interestingly, scientists, throughout the later centuries, have posited that all reality can be perceived through the senses.

Old Testament: This term is related to the Hebrew nega, which can have a two-fold meaning. Nega can mean to be at rest or to set in motion. Isa.51:4-5 refers the Lord’s teaching and judgment, coming as a light to the people, will rest (come forth quickly). This most likely refers to a moment rather than rest. Essentially, a moment is a very small (brief) snapshot in the movement of time. This Hebrew word refers to the twinkling of an eye. This term also illustrates something extremely small.

New Testament: This term pertains to what happens in an instant, a flash of time so brief it could not be easily measured. In an era before modern time measurement, it was impossible to define this period of time.1 Corinthians mentions that the coming of Christ is to be very sudden and without notice. God will raise the dead so fast that time will stop. This will occur in the blink of an eye.

Scripture:

“In an instant, in the blink of an eye, at the last trumpet. For the trumpet will sound, the dead will be raised incorruptible, and we shall be changed.” 1Cor. 15:42

This event will happen instantly. This moment of time will not be measure or determined.

Conclusion:

Atomic, atom, moment

Now is not the time nor place to have a discussion on the rapture. This can become an epic theological philosophical discussion.

It is such a great credit to the ancient Greek minds to even consider the idea of atoms (small particles). This is a credit to their intellectual foresight and genius.

It is interesting to discover the profound two fold meaning of the Hebrew term naga. This term speaks of time in infinitely small terms. At first glance, I would not expect this term would come from a simpler Old Testament (Hebrew) culture. However, this becomes very plausible when dealing with an eternal God. This Hebrew definition unknowingly provides a greater insight about the atom. Again, the New Testament culture continues to ponder an eternal an omnipotent God’s capabilities.

In modern Israeli culture, rega refers to a silent hand gesture meaning “wait a minute”. It has been found that a person can blink his eye five times in a single moment. This happen so quickly, that the brain often cannot perceive. So this happens in a blink on an eye!

[Greek] ἄστρον (astron), [Latin] stella, [Latin} sidus: star, group of stars, constellation, planet, luminous body in the sky; Lk.21:25, Act.7:43, Act.27:20, Heb.11:12

Background Information:

Greek Astronomy: Stars were regarded as beings, gods, or deities. Greek (Hellenistic) astronomy was defined by starting to seek a rational and physical explanation of celestial phenomena. Hellenistic values incorporated other intellectual disciplines and philosophy. Greek astronomy was also influenced by scientific contributions from Egyptian and Babylonian astronomy.

Old Testament: This Greek term is related to the Hebrew kokab, which originally took on its spiritual sense of light (the 4^th day of Creation). It was centuries later that this Hebrew definition would change during the Hebrews’ captivity under the Babylonians. The Hebrews were influenced by the Babylonian worship of the stars. This would later lead to the Hebrews’ belief that stars have heavenly qualities and characteristics. In Num.24:17 Judaism symbolized its Messianic expectations in a star. A star shall advance from Jacob (Num.24:17). Kaiwan, your star-image, your gods that you have made for yourselves (Amos 5:26). God made the stars (Gen.1:16). How have you fallen from the heavens, morning star (Isa.14:12). When I see your heavens, the work of your fingers, the moon and stars that you set in place (Psa.8:4).

New Testament: This term primarily means star, planet, and constellation. The New Testament culture continues the Old Testament tradition of assigning a heavenly character to the stars. The Star of Bethlehem provides the classic example of this belief system. This Star heralded the birth of Jesus in Bethlehem. Stars also played an important role in astrology and with the Hellenist gods (deities).

Scripture:

“No, you took up the tent of Moloch and the star of your god Rephan, the images that you made to worship, So I shall take you into exile beyond Babylon.” Act. 7:43

This makes reference to the Israelites in the wilderness, who worship Moloch and the star of the god Rephan. God punishes them by sending into exile.

“There will be signs in the sun, the moon, and the stars, and on earth nations will be in dismay, perplexed by the roaring of the seas and waves.” Lk. 21:25

This speaks to the signs of the coming of the Son of Man. The powers of the heavens are viewed as heavenly bodies.

“So it was that there came forth from one man himself, as good as dead, descendants as numerous as the stars in the sky and as countless as the sands of the seashore.” Heb. 11:12

Abraham’s descendants will be as numerous as the stars in the sky.

Etymology: The Latin noun sidus means stars, group of stars, and constellation. The related Latin verb considerare means literally to observe the stars. Essentially this verb means to look at clearly. By the 1650’s the adjective means pretty large.

Conclusion:

Astronomy, astronomical, stellar, sidereal, consider, considerable

Greek astronomy and Hellenism plays an important role in the early belief of assigning gods and deities with the stars. Aside from the mythology of the stars, the Greeks made great scientific contributions to astronomy.

It was interesting to discover the original Hebrew meaning referred to light associated with the 4^th day of Creation, rather than with the stars. The Babylonian Captivity changes this understanding in referring to a star. Stars become heavenly manifestations of great rulers and the messiah.

The New Testament continues with this Old Testament understanding of stars. Not surprising, the Star in Bethlehem becomes associated with the birth of the infant Jesus. Stars play an important in Revelations and in apocalyptic contexts.

—Useless Word Alert—

Sideral: Pertaining to the stars and diurnal motion of the fixed stars

This post is for your consideration.

[Greek] ἀρχαῖος (archaios), [Latin] antiquus, [Latin] prioribus, [Latin] vetera, [Latin] originalis: original, primeval, them of an old time, ancient, archaic, old things, a good while ago, old, existing for a long time in the past, persons belong to a former age, old point of time; 2Pet.2:25, Mt.5:21, Lk.9:8, Act.15:7, Act.21:16, 2Cor.5:17, Rev.12:9, Act.15:21, Mt.5:27

Background Information:

Ancient Greek: This term, essentially meaning old or ancient, takes on many varied and nuanced meanings. This term can mean from the very beginning, the earliest time, belonging to a distant time, past events, nature origins, forefathers, and the ancient poets and philosophers. Plato states that an inherent ancient truth may still illustrate an aspect of truth.

Old Testament: This Greek term is similar to two related Hebrew terms. The Hebrew qedem, meaning ancient, refers to a time in the past when God acts in Creation or in the days of the Exodus. The other Hebrew olam indicates something lasting that stretches continually into the future. The Hebrews looked back into history and found their identity in the covenant promises that God made. The past is the foundation for the present and future. The past was deeply respected. These are the events of old (1Chr.4:22). The finest gifts of ancient mountains (Deut.33:15). I am a descendent of wise men and kings (Isa.19:11). At the beginning; from of old, things not yet done (Isa. 46:10). From days of old, I planned it (Isa.37:26). One ruler is to be ruler of Israel; whose origin is from of old, from ancient times. Therefore the Lord will give them up, until the time when she who is to give birth has borne (Mic.5:1-2).

New Testament: This term can mean ancient, old, existing for a long time, and long ago from an age. Scriptural references are made to ancestors, ancient prophets, Moses, disciples, and Satan. This past is illustrated in Creation prior to the Flood. Religious traditions and practices are presented in historical terms. However, this term does not speak to the idea that God has existed perpetually in the past.

Scripture:

“Others were saying, ‘Elijah has appeared’; still others, ‘One of the ancient prophets has arisen.’” Lk.9:8

Some thought John the Baptist was Elijah. This gives credence to John the Baptist’s mission.

“Peter said to them, ‘My brothers, you are well aware that from early days God made his choice among you that through my mouth the Gentiles would hear the word of the gospel and believe.’” Act. 15:7

Through God’s Providence, God would use Peter proclaim the gospel to the Gentiles. God made this decision  

“So whoever is in Christ is a new creation: the old things have passed away; behold, new things have come.” 2Cor.5:17

The death of Christ brings a new order. A new mode of perception of knowing Christ begins through the Spirit. The rabbis referred to a new creation as one who becomes a convert.

Conclusion:

Archaic, archaeology, archaeologist, antique, prior, veteran, original

I never realized that there could be so many nuances of the sense of being ancient or old. I think Plato wisely states that there could be elements of truth associated with an ancient myth. Perhaps not a literal truth, but there can be truth present nonetheless. I think the same can be said for scripture.  Even in scripture, there are other aspects of truth besides literal truth.

It is interesting to see the Hebrew perspective of the sense of being old or ancient. Not only does this look back in time, but it also stretches into the future. The past covenantal history of the Old Testament provides the foundation for the Hebrew (Israelite) culture.

The New Testament culture also continues with the many nuanced aspects of being ancient or old. It interesting to see that from ages past, that God intended to use Peter to reach the Gentiles. Jesus makes all things new with His sacrifice and resurrection. All such prior religious relationship are superseded by Jesus’ actions.

Interestingly, Matthew’s gospel reports that the chief priests and scribes cite Micah 5:1-2 as the ancient promise of a messiah in the line of David to be born in Bethlehem (Mt.2:5-6).

[Greek] ἀξιόω (axioō), [Latin] arbitrate, [Latin] dignare, [French] observer: to deem fit, to consider worthy, to count worthy, to think good to choose, to regard worthy, to consider wise or fitting, to deem suitable, to act accordingly, being deemed or esteemed; Lk.7:7, 2Thess.1:11, 1Tim;17, Heb.3:3, Heb.10:29, Act.15:38, Act.13:42, Act.28:22

Background Information:

Hellenism: This term is used in the sense of to expect, to consider it right, and to consider something worthy or deserving. Considering something worthy can be positive (deserving a reward) and also negative (deserving punishment). The Stoic philosopher Epictetus describes one’s calling, position, and destiny to be regard worthy of a post by Zeus. Epictetes states one should be behave politely in all situations. The historian Thucydides pondered what is considered proper and ethical behavior during warfare.

Old Testament: This term is related to seven Hebrew terms which convey a variety of meanings and senses.  Such meanings include to seek, to ask, to petition, to implore, to root out, and to replace. Other senses include lifting, tearing in a figurative, literal, and in an absolute way. They sought Daniel and his companions to be slain (Dan.2:16). It came to pass (Ex.33:7). Because God has dealt graciously with me (Gen.33:11). To whom I will be gracious (Ex.33:19).  Lift up thy eyes (Gen.13:14). The Lord rooted them out of their land in anger (Deut.29:28). I desire a request of you (Jgs.8:24). Abraham lifted up his eyes (Gen.22:4). Daniel praying and making supplication to God (Dan.6:11).

New Testament: This term essentially means to make or consider worthy. The New Testament illustrates this term in varied and nuanced meanings. Being worthy is illustrated by one’s status, moral character, acceptance, situation, and circumstances. It was considered worthy to be humble and to show respect toward others. Situations often determined whether one was accepted or rejected. Openness to other viewpoints were often based on value judgments.

Scripture:

“But we should like to hear you present your views, for we know this sect is denounced everywhere.” Act. 28:22

The Jews of Rome were open to hear Paul present his views. These Jews felt it was worth the effort to hear Paul.

“Paul insisted that they should not take with them someone who deserted them at Pamphylia and who had not continued with them in their work.” Act.15:38

Paul made a choice that it was not worth it that this person come along with them.

“Therefore, I did not consider myself worthy to come to you’ but say the word and let my servant be healed.” Lk.7:7

It was considered unclean for a Jew to enter a house of a Gentile. This may also apply to social status.

Conclusion:

Axiom, axiomatic, arbitrate, arbitrary, dignity, deign, observe

It is interesting to note that Hellenistic wisdom and philosophy can provide and offer sage advice which can be applicable to Judeo-Christian principles. It does make sense that being worthy can apply both positively and negatively.

In the New Testament culture, the Jews had a certain perspective about what it means to be worthy. The Pharisees, scribes, and Sadducees were considered the prominent and worthy class.  Less desirable (worthy) were considered the unclean. However, Jesus did not make this distinction. Instead, Jesus associated with the unworthy and sinners. The one who follows Jesus now is considered as worthy in God’s eyes.

[Greek] ἀναθεματίζω (anathematizō), [Latin] anathematizare, [Latin] devovere, [French] consacrer: to declare or vow under penalty, to bind under a curse, to bind with an oath, to declare anathema, to declare cursed; Mk.14:71, Act.23:12,14,21, Mt.26:74

Roman curse tablets from Bath, Somerset England were written by victims of theft and crime to exact the gods’ wrath on those wrongdoers.

Background Information:

Paganism: Curse tablets (or binding spells) were used by Greco-Roman and other pagan cultures to place curses on a person or object. These texts were typically scratched on very thin lead sheets. These tablets were usually placed beneath the ground in tombs, in wells, or in underground sanctuaries. The wronged person would call upon the gods (spirits) to seek vengeance against a person or object. Curse tablets also included the subject’s hair or clothing.

Old Testament: This term originally comes from the Greek anatithemi (I dedicate or place upon). However, this term takes on its negative sense when that person or object is placed under a curse. Related to the Hebrew haram, this term can mean to declared cursed, to cut off, to smite, to destroy, or to make an enemy. Because you have rejected the word of the Lord, the Lord has rejected you as king (1 Sam.15:23). Cursed be anyone who dishonors father or mother! (Deut.27:16). When the Lord gives them over to you and you defeat them, you shall put them under the ban (Deut.7:2). Cursed be the ones who takes food before evening, before I am able to avenge myself on my enemies (1 Sam. 14:24).

New Testament: This term is used in the sense of putting oneself voluntarily and involuntarily under a curse. Some Jews are willing to put themselves under God’s judgment with a pledge not to eat until they kill Paul. On the other hand, Peter, caught in fearful situation, puts himself under an oath if he lies about being a disciple. Matthew’s gospel adds a further detail about a cock crowing. The act of placing oneself under a curse infers that divine harm will occur if one does not carry out what is promised.

Scripture:

“He began to curse and to swear, ‘I do not know this man about whom you are talking.’” Mk. 14:71

In his panic, Peter makes a curse stating that he doesn’t know Jesus. Peter curses himself if he lies about knowing Jesus. Peter is also cursing the people if they make out that he is a disciple.

“When day came, the Jews made a plot and bound themselves by oath not to eat or drink until they had killed Paul.” Act. 23:12

The Jews willingly put themselves under God’s judgment, if they did not make every effort to fulfill their obligation. They thought they would be pleasing God by getting rid of Paul

Conclusion:

Anathema, anathematize, devote, devotion, consecrate, consecration

It is interesting to learn that those people, who felt that they were wronged, would call upon Pluto, Charon, and Hades, the gods of the underworld. Some people would issue curse tablets for stolen bathing suits. This sounds very petty to me.

Bath is the largest city in the county of Somerset England, known for its Roman-built baths. One such Bath curse tablet stated, “Solinus to the goddess Sulis. I give to your divinity my bathing tunic and cloak. Do not allow sleep or health to him who has done me wrong, whether man or woman unless he reveals himself and bring those goods to your temple.”

It is in the Old Testament culture that we can understand the original meaning of this term. This involves something that is offered to God. What is not pleasing, honorable, or proper becomes anathema. In the New Testament, it is often a person who often puts himself under a curse if he fails to fulfill the contract. It is also important to know that a covenant is much more important than a contract.  Essentially, the person who participates in a covenant relationship binds himself to that other person. This is even much more so in the covenant relationship between God and man.

‎[Greek] αἰών (aiōn), [Latin] aeon: age, world, period of time, system, era, past, state of things, universe, world system, long ago, forever, eternal, the Devil, non-religious people; Mt.12:32, Heb.1:2, 1Cor.3:18, Lk.1:70, Rev.22:5, 2Cor.4:4, Lk.16:8. Mt.13:39, Heb.9:26, 1Cor.10:11, Heb.13:8, Rom.16:26

Background Information:

Secular Greek: This term can mean vital force, lifetime, age (generation), space of time, and eternity. Philosophers have made use of this term in discussions of the problem of time. The commonly held Greek view holds the world and creation, having an almost eternal nature, has a finite time and duration. In Hellenism this term becomes the name of a god of eternity.

Old Testament:

Time of the World (Creation): Remarkably, this term begins to define two competing notions of time: the eternity of God and the duration of the world. At first, these ideas seem to be at odds with each other. However, the duration of the world becomes part of the larger eternal nature of God. These ideas serve to provide some context in understanding the later New Testament notion of the finite current world and the later eternal future kingdom of heaven.

Eternity of God: This term attains its full significance when it is linked with the eternal nature of God. The being of God reaches back into times past. In contrast the mortal man, subject to death, God is immortal. Abraham invoked by name the Lord, God the Eternal (Gen.21:33). My Spirit shall not remain in human beings forever (Gen. 6:3). As surely as I live forever (Deut.32:40). For the Lord is an eternal Rock (Isa. 26:4). You forget the eternal God who nurtured you (Bar. 4:8).

New Testament: This term, illustrated and defined in various and nuanced ways, can mean an era, the universe, a world system (of beliefs), long ago, eternity, the Devil, and non-religious people. As in the Old Testament, eternity (infinite) is differentiated from cosmic (finite) time. The present and future are both mentioned throughout scripture. A new development occurs when God’s eternal nature is extended to Christ. This context also presumes the pre-existence of Christ.

Scripture:

“And whoever speaks a word against the Son of Man will be forgiven; but whoever speaks against the Holy Spirit will not be forgiven, either in this age or in the age to come.” Mt.12:32

This term speaks to a finite time as a particular stage of history.

“Let no one deceive himself. If any one among you considers wise in this age, let him become a fool so as to become wise.” 1Cor.3:18

This term is used to describe the beliefs, attitudes, and practices of secular world outside of God. Those who seek become wise in this culture actually become foolish according to God.

“Jesus is the same yesterday, today, and forever.” Heb. 13:8

This speaks to the eternal and pre-existent nature of Jesus.

Conclusion:

Aeon

Perhaps it is not surprising, that in an era of intellectuals and philosophers, time would be already be thought of in two different contexts (timeless and finite). I did not realize that there would be a god of eternity in Hellenistic thought. Although this idea was considered foreign in the New Testament culture, this may have contributed to the idea of the Devil as the god of the world opposed to Christianity.

In the Old Testament, God makes very present and concrete the idea of timeless eternity. God is eternal. I was surprised by the many varied uses of this term in the New Testament. The eternal aspects of Jesus sheds some light on Jesus’ pre-existence. This is a quality that is perhaps not fully understood.

[Greek] αἴνιγμα (ainigma), [Latin] enigma: riddle, obscure saying, enigma, obscure thing, what is rendered darkly, hint, manner difficult to understand, puzzle; 1Cor.13:12

Like a clouded window, bronze mirrors (in Corinth) were considered only to be just fair reflectors of reality.

Background Information:

Ancient Greece: This term refers to an enigma, riddle, or puzzle. Riddles in the ancient world were a popular past-time enjoyed by all social classes (grownups and children alike). Plato dismisses riddles as an inferior form of knowledge. Aristotle connects riddles with metaphors. Because of their mysterious or ambiguous nature, oracular and prophetic announcements were often linked with riddles. In Sophocles’ tragedy Oedipus at Colunus, the Sphinx asks Oedipus a riddle (enigma). Plutarch considered enigmata as challenges posed by god to mortals. At Greek symposia (drinking parties), one who solves a riddle often received a reward. The image of looking in a mirror arises from Hellenistic magical practices.

Old Testament: The riddle is likened to a mirror which gives an indistinct and clouded picture. The image of the glass and mirror are similar. To see in a glass also means to see prophetically, often in an unclear manner. Unlike with Moses, God often reveals Himself in clouded images. In a sense needed only one mirror (himself) to see God.  The later generations of rabbis “saw” God with the help of nine mirrors (prophets).  It is clear that seeing in a glass can infer participation in the divine revelation in a certain sense. Face to face I speak to Him, plainly and not in riddles (Num.12:8). The Queen of Sheba came to test him with subtle questions (1 Kgs.10:1). Daniel explaining riddles and solving problems (Dan. 5:12). Son of ma, propose a riddle, and speak this proverb to the house of Israel (Ezek.17:2). The vision was like that which I had seen when he came to destroy the city (Ezek.43:3).

New Testament: This term occurs only one time. As in the Old Testament, a riddle and mirror both point to prophetic revelation. Paul uses the example of a mirror to indicate that heavenly things are often puzzling, indistinct, and unclear. Mirrors can only provide a reflection of reality, not the reality itself. This can illustrate the dim and imperfect manner in which we understand heavenly and eternal things.

Scripture:

“At present we see indistinctly, as in a mirror, but then face to face. At present, I know partially’ then I shall know fully, as I am fully known.” 1 Cor. 13:12

Paul states that we can partially see and understand heavenly things. These images are puzzling and unclear. ‘Face to face’ refers to Moses’ encounter with God.

Conclusion:

Enigma, enigmatic

It is encouraging to discover that human nature is constant throughout the centuries. Ancient Greeks also enjoyed riddles and puzzles. I suppose it is not surprising that Greco-Roman symposia (drinking parties) would find any reason (occasion) to indulge themselves. Perhaps, it is also not surprising that some philosophers would have snobbish or elitist attitudes toward riddles.

It is not surprising that the Old Testament prophets’ messages could also be shrouded in mystery. It is interesting to note that the Old Testament culture also makes mention of mirrors pertaining to seeing in an unclear manner.

In the ancient world, mirrors were still considered poor reflectors of reality. Interestingly, Corinth had a worldwide reputation for making mirrors made out of bronze. Corinth was a prominent commercial and trading city. Bronze mirrors provided a fair reflection of reality. Most likely, Paul was referring to a bronze mirror in Corinth.

[Greek] ἀγωγή (agōgē), [Latin] institutionem: a carrying, a leading away, a guiding conduct, a bringing up, a mode of life, a manner of life, behavior, way of life, training, a teaching, a course of life, a rearing, a persuasion; 2 Tim.3:10

Sardis Synagogue was the center of Jewish life (3rd century B.C)  in Turkey during the Late Roman period.

Background Information:

Ancient Greece: This term, primarily used in Spartan culture, means (or place) for leading, training, guidance, and rearing. This was the rigorous education and training program required for all male Spartan citizens, excluding the first-born sons in the ruling families. This training involved learning stealth, loyalty, military training, hunting, dancing, singing, and social skills. This system was intended to produce strong and capable young warriors who could serve the state. This term, in philosophical circles, denotes a choice or way of life.

Old Testament: The Hebrew counterpart to agoge was called the Halakha. The Halakha was essentially a collective body of laws which governed religious principles and beliefs and aspects of ordinary life of the Jew. The Halakha was derived from the written and oral tradition of the Torah. Historically, the Halakha provided guidance to many Jews of the Diaspora. It was important for the Jew to maintain and uphold his cultural traditions wherever he lived. Just as she had when she was being brought up by him (Esth.2:20). The Jew Mordecai was seeking the good of his people (Esth. 10:3). The very people whose manner of life they emulated (2 Macc.4:16). A decree was issued ordering the neighboring Greek cities to adopt the same measures (2 Macc.6:8). We have heard that the Jews prefer their own way of life (2 Macc. 11:24).

New Testament: This term, occurring only one time, essentially refers to the example (model) provided by Paul. This term refers to one’s behavior, orientation, and character, formed and shaped by one’s master (teacher). Paul calls for Timothy to follow his example. Paul calls Timothy to be steadfast in the face of persecution and to be faithful to what he has been taught.

Scripture:

“You have followed my teaching, way of life, purpose, faith, patience, love, and endurance.” 2 Tim. 3:10

Paul calls upon Timothy to follow his example. The teacher (master) disciple relationship becomes an important institution in the Judeo-Christian culture.

Conclusion:

Synagogue, anagogical, pedagogy, demagogue, institution

It seems that these Spartan schools are perhaps not much different from the ancient gymnasia. The gymnasia also trained students in athletics, philosophy, literature, and music. This is where the young person would receive a well-round (enkuklios) education. The Greek paideia means child-rearing.  Essentially, an encyclopedia means an education in the circle of arts and science.

Many Jews emigrated to other regions in the Mediterranean region during the Diaspora. Even though they were in foreign lands, it was very important for these dispersed Jews to maintain their Jewish identity and character wherever they lived. Although these Jews often adopted the Greek Hellenistic customs, they still maintained their Jewish identity. So it is not surprising that they would refer to the Torah and Halakha for guidance. These Jews would gather or assemble together. Syn- means together. The synagogue becomes the Jews’ place of worship, where they would practice their spiritual way of life.

Pedagogy is the method and practice of teaching to children. Anagogy is elevating the mind to spiritual sense. Therefore, the anagogical sense of the bible refers to its spiritual sense. A demagogue is a political leader who seeks support appealing to popular desires and prejudices rather than rational arguments.

[Greek] ἀγνοέω (agnoeō), [Latin] ignorare, [Latin] ignorantes, [Latin] ignoramus, [Latin] ignotus: to not know, to be ignorant, to have no knowledge, to not pay attention, to not recognize, to fail to understand, to have a willful ignorance, to lack discernment, to sing through ignorance, to have a worldly wisdom, to lack God’s wisdom, to pay no attention to; Rom.1:13, Rom. 11:25, Gal. 1:22, Mk.9:32, Lk.9:45, 1Cor. 14:38, 2Pet.2:12, Rom. 2:4, 2Cor. 2:11, Acts.17:23

Paul makes reference that the Greeks also desire to seek an Unknown God (Angostos Theos)

Background Information:

Old Testament: This term is negatively used with respect to all the nuances of the Greek concept of knowledge. This term can mean not knowing, being mistaken, being in error, being ignorant, and being unsure. In the Old Testament, this term specifically refers to both God and man. This lack understanding may translate to ignorance, rejection, and disobedience of God. The priest shall make atonement on the officer’s behalf for the error inadvertently and unknowingly committed (Lev5:18). You shall repeat this on the 7^th day of the month for those who have sinned out of ignorance. Even though I have been a fool and have made a serious mistake (1 Sam.26:21). We pardon any oversight and offenses committed up to now (1 Macc. 13:39). I had known that she (Wisdom) is their leader (Wis. 7:12).

New Testament: This term continues the same Old Testament understanding of this term applying to man, God, and Jesus. This term can specifically mean to fail to understand, to ignore (pay no attention), to be unaware, and to reject. Some, by their very nature, do not understand what they do. For others, it is a willful act of rejection. The Greeks unknowingly worship an ‘Unknown God’. Sometimes, this involves general ignorance.

Scripture:

“‘Pay attention to what I am telling you. The Son of Man is to be handed over to men.’ But they did not understand this saying; its meaning was hidden from them so that they should not understand it, and they were afraid to ask Him about this saying.” Lk. 9:44-45

The disciple, in their ignorance, not only failed to understand Jesus’s statements, but failed to ask Jesus what He meant. The disciples were clearly clueless.

“I was once a blasphemer and a persecutor and an arrogant man, but I have been mercifully treated because I acted out of ignorance in my unbelief.” 1Tim.1:13

Paul, as a zealous Pharisee, led the persecution against Jesus and His disciples.  The Pharisee Saul, according to his Jewish beliefs, felt justified in actions to persecute the Christians.

“For as I walked around looking carefully at your shrines, I even discovered and alter inscribed, ‘To and Unknown God.’ What therefore you unknowingly worship, I proclaim to you.” Act. 17:23

Paul appeals to the Greeks’ belief in the multiplicity of gods. Paul recognizes that the Greeks also share the human desire to seek God. Paul mentions that this God does not need to be served by human hands.

Conclusion:

Agnostic, agnosticism, ignoramus, ignorance

I am not surprised that this term would convey all the varied and nuanced ways that would illustrate the sense of not knowing. This term is necessary in understanding man’s nature and his relationship with God. This process first begins with asking these questions. The disciples are perfect illustrations of what it means to lack understanding and to be clueless. I think Paul provides the very insightful observation that even the pagan Greeks also show their unknowing desire to know God.

The Baltimore Catechism, the first catechism written for Catholics in North America, in a question and answer format, states a most profound question:

Why did God make you?  God made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in this world, and to be happy with Him forever in the next.

The Latin ignoramus literally means “we are ignorant” or “we do not know.”  Originally, this meant not as an insult, but just the neutral idea of lack of knowledge. I didn’t know that!

[Greek] ἀγαπάω (agapaō): to love, to have unconditional love, to have a depreciation for someone, to show love, to have self-sacrificial love, to have a love of devotion, to have a high regard  for someone, to recognize someone’s worth, to have a love based on the needs of others; 1 Jn.3:17, Jn. 13:34-35, Jn.12:43, Jn. 3:16, Jn.14:23,  Eph. 5:25, Jn.11:5, Lk.22:42, Eph.5:2, Jn. 3:16, Jn.21:15-19

Background Information:

Classical Greek: This term does not have the same cultural impact of the two other related words for love: eros and philia. Interestingly, poets and philosophers rarely used this term. Essentially, denoting sympathy and friendship, this term loses it full meaning in Greek culture. In other contexts, this term can mean to be satisfied, to honor, and to esteem a person. This term can be applied to a thing which is right or to a person (child) who is dear.

Old Testament: This term is related to the Hebrew aheb, used over 200 times in the Old Testament. Agape’s deeper meaning is more fully realized by illustrating God’s relationship with man and man’s relationship with each other. Hellenistic Judaism and Rabbinic Judaism both incorporate elements of agape. Agape is a giving act of the will of love for the other’s benefit. It was because the Lord loved you and because of His fidelity to the oath He had sworn to your ancestors (Deut.7:8). Israel loved Joseph best of all his sons (Gen.37:3). I will be their God, and they shall be My people (Jer.31:33). When Israel was a child I loved him, out of Egypt I called My son (Hos.11:1). Yet only on your ancestors did the Lord set His heart to love them (Deut.10:15). Take your son Isaac, your only one, whom you love, and go to the land of Moriah (Gen.22:2).

Hellenistic Judaism: The Old Testament concept of love of God is intertwined with the Hellenistic ideal of humanity. Yet, this synthesis of belief systems often caused many difficulties for the Jews of the Diaspora. There is much reference to the love of God. The Wisdom literature and related writing speak of the good (pious) who show their faithfulness to God. Agape is clearly shown when the martyr unconditionally accepts all kinds of torments and suffering in faithfulness to God. 4 Maccabees, although non-canonical, was written to the Jews of the Diaspora who were experiencing suffering and martyrdom. Love of one’s neighbor is an important theme in Hellenistic Judaism. “And therefore you ought to endure any suffering for the sake of God. For His sake also our father Abraham was zealous to sacrifice his son Isaac.” 4 Macc 16:19-20

Rabbinic Judaism: Love is defined by the relationship between God and man. Man is loved because he is in the image of God. The point at which love between God and man is particularly revealed is that of suffering and martyrdom. Love of fellow man finds fulfillment in active and beneficial works. This neighborly love provides the foundation for “love your neighbor as you love yourself “(Lev.19:18). However these laws do not, for the most part, extend beyond the borders of the people of God. Jesus, in a new paradigm, proclaims that one must be neighborly to all people.

New Testament: This term, used more than 142 times, demonstrates agape in the sense to love, to show (demonstrate) love, to take pleasure in, and other uses. Building upon Old Testament teachings, Jesus demands that neighborly love must be extended to all (including the stranger). This love should be given unconditionally. Jesus also proclaims that the mercy of God is available for all. A different kind of divine love is illustrated in aspects of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

Scripture:

“For God so loved the world that He gave His only Son, so that everyone who believes in Him might not perish but might have eternal life.” Jn.3:16

This famous scripture perhaps best describes God’s love and endless mercy. Every sinner is precious in His sight.

When they had finished breakfast, Jesus said to Simon Peter, ‘Simon, son of John, do you love me more than these?’ Peter said to Him, ‘Yes, Lord, you know that I love you.’ He said to him, ‘Feed my lambs.’  Jn. 21:15

In his exchange with Jesus, Peter could only provide phileo (love) toward Jesus.

“Husbands, love your wives, even as Christ loved the Church and handed Himself over for her.” Eph. 5:25

The husband and wife relationship ideally should be modeled after Jesus’ relationship with the Church.  Jesus is the Bridegroom to His Church. This is another example of agape love.

Conclusion:

Agape

Perhaps it is not surprising that this term did not frequently appear in the Classical Greek era. The relationships between man and the gods (deities) were most likely fleeting, distant, and temporary. So there was probably no need for this deep type of agape love.

On the other hand, The Old Testament and Judaism, with God having an essential role, required the need for agape love. It was interesting to discover a synthesis of Old Testament Hebrew beliefs and Greek Hellenistic belief systems that guided the Jews of the Diaspora. I can see how the books of Maccabees would appeal to the pious and zealots alike. In my studies I have developed a greater appreciation for all the Maccabees books, even though only 1 and 2 Maccabees are considered canonical. All these books are very interesting.

In the New Testament, Jesus adds another dimension in providing unconditional love for strangers and enemies. In addition, scriptures about the Trinity illustrate divine agape love.

[Greek] στεφανόω (stephanoō), [Latin] coronare: to crown, to win the prize, to adorn with a wreath, to place a crown on one’s head, to honor; 2 Tim.2:5, Heb.2:7, Heb.2:9

You know it is a big fricking deal when they create a new word (stephanoo) after you. Stephen won the imperishable prize of salvation.

Background Information:

Ancient Greece: This term means to enclose or to encircle. The crown (stephanos) encircles the head in a circular or horse-shoe shape. Heaven is encircled by stars which embrace it like a crown. Pindar makes mention of the circling walls of Troy. Homer makes mention of a battle kindled (surrounding) the city.

Ancient Olympics: The victor of the race received a crown (wreath) of olive leaves. The crown comes from a branch of an olive tree from Olympia. When the victor was crowned, this practice also served to honor the gods. Although the victor did not receive financial rewards, he received a great amount of prestige. The victor was entitled to have a statue made in his image and a victory celebration to his home. Essentially, the victor received first-class treatment by the authorities.

Old Testament: This term primarily is used in the sense of to surround, to encircle, and to crown (adorn).

1. The young king Herod is given the victor’s crown after defeating Antigonus. Herod was adorned with a golden crown at his funeral.
2. The faithful Jewish martyrs were given the crown of righteousness.
3. The crown is an eschatological reward for victory and honor.
4. Rabbinic theology speaks of the three crowns of the Torah, the priesthood, and the monarchy.
5. The Jewish philosopher Philo refers to the contestants in the stadium receiving the crowns of renown.

New Testament: This term means to give a prize and to honor. The faithful Christian is likened to an athlete who wins the prize (receives a crown) in a contest. This faithful Christian wins the imperishable prize of glory. Jesus is crowned with honor and glory. Jesus is exalted by His death on the Cross. Jesus’ death becomes the ultimate victory which results in redeeming the fallen nature of man.

St. Stephen: He has been venerated as the first Christian martyr. He is the first to wear the victorious crown of martyrdom in becoming a saint. Accused of blasphemy, Stephen denounced the Jewish authorities and then was stoned to death. He was a Greek Hellenized Jew. He becomes one of the first deacons instructed to provide for the welfare of the Greek speaking widows.

Scripture:

2Tim. 2:5: “Similarly, an athlete cannot receive the winner’s crown except by competing according to the rules.” (Paul instructs Timothy about the necessity of safeguarding and faithfully transmitting the faith. One must have a single-mindedness of a soldier in order to not to become entangled in the affairs of life. One must also have the discipline and preparedness of an athlete to run this Christian race of life.)

Heb.2:9: “We do see Jesus ‘crowned with glory and honor’ because He suffered death.” (Jesus is crowned with glory by His death on the Cross. This crowning is possible because Jesus is faithful to the Father in providing redemption for fallen nature of man.)

Conclusion:

Stephen, Steven, coronation, crown, crowned

I suppose it makes sense that this term is associated with encircling. The Olympic crown, either in circular or horse-shoe form, encircles the victor’s head. When a victor is crowned, the gods were also honored. The victorious Olympic athletes were not financially rewarded==> amateur athletes. However, they did receive first class attention, prestige and support by influential patrons . So, I guess not much has really changed with the Olympic tradition over time. Sounds like the early precursor to celebrity endorsements and corporate sponsors.

It is certainly understandable that the Old Testament (Jewish) culture would view the crown in a much different non-pagan light. Crowning was acceptable when the prophets bestow authority on the king. The prophet’s blessing was perceived as a sign of God’s favor.

The New Testament begins to develop the important theme of the Christian as an athlete. Even 4 Macc., although not considered canonical, already developed this idea in the Old Testament era. Interestingly, Ignatius, in his Letter to Polycarp (110 A.D.) refers to Christian as athletes. Ignatius states “Bear the maladies as a perfect athlete. Where there is more toil, there is much gain.”

St. Stephen would become the first person to wear the “crown” (stephanos) of martyrdom in becoming the first Christian saint. In a sense, St. Stephen was victorious in the race (crossed the finish line) of the Christian life by being faithful to God. It is quite profoundly significant when they create a new verb (stephanoo) from your own name!

Update: One does not necessarily need to be victorious in a competition. One can also be victorious in just standing up for and defending one’s faith. 

Not surprisingly, we quite frequently see victorious athletes thanking God for their efforts and accomplishments. Human nature and motivations remain constant over time.

Not surprisingly, victorious athletes often become larger than life celebrities and heroes for many people.

Not surprisingly, victorious athletes often receive celebrity endorsements and corporate sponsors.

“If you aspire to a great crown in heaven that will never fade, love and honor Mary, and strive to make her known, loved and honored by others.”  St. Joseph Cafasso

“How could I bear a crown of gold when the Lord bears a crown of thorns? And He bears it for me!” St. Elizabeth of Hungary

“All saints give testimony to the truth that without real effort, no one ever wins the crown.” St. Thomas Becket

Next post: mockery

[Greek] σκολιός (skolios), [Latin] prava: curved, winding, crooked, perverse, unreasonable, warped, untoward, unscrupulous, corrupt, twisted, dishonest, false, cunning, slanting; Lk.3:5, Act.5=2:40, Php. 2:15, 1Pet. 2:18

The serpent was the most cunning of all the animals. (Gen.3:1)

Background Information:

Secular Greek: In its literal sense, this term refers to rivers, roads, difficult access to knowledge, staffs, and snakes. In other senses, this term refers to straightening what is crooked. In his dialogue Phaedrus, Plato illustrates different aspects of the soul. One part is like a crooked horse, filled with hubris and pretension. In Enneads I 6,9 Plotinus states, as a sculptor works on his piece, so one should work at one’s own image. He states “remove what is superfluous, straighten what is crooked, and never stop sculpting your own statue, until the godlike splendor of virtue shines forth to you.” Interestingly, this term doesn’t occur frequently in Hellenism.

Old Testament: On the other hand, this term occurs more frequently in a literal sense. In addition, this term predominately occurs in a moral and religious sense in the book of Proverbs. Other examples occur in Deuteronomy, Job, the Psalms, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. Essentially, this term expresses the nature of one who does not walk in the straightness and uprightness that God has planned for him. This behavior is sometimes guilty and worthy of punishment.

Literal sense: Leviathan, the coiled serpent (Isa.27:1). The serpent was the most cunning of all the animals (Gen.3:1). They were dying from the bite of crooked serpents (Wis.16:5). But those who turn aside to crooked ways may the Lord send down with the wicked (Psa. 124:5). I will turn darkness into light before them, and make crooked way straight (Isa.42:16).

Moral and religious sense: Whose ways are crooked, and devious their paths (Prov.2:15). He who is devious in his ways spurn Him (Prov.14:2). Thorns and snares are on the path of the crooked (Prov.22:5). He whose ways are crooked falls into a pit (Prov. 28:18). No one of them (words) is wily and crooked (Prov. 8:8). Put away from you dishonest talk (Prov.4:24).

New Testament: This term’s infrequent occurrence in Hellenism may also help explain why this term does not frequently occur in the New Testament. This term occurs only four times in the New Testament in three different ways. Luke makes reference to rough, crooked, and uneven obstacles (hindrances) that will be overcome and set aside. In part, this will be the task of John the Baptist in preparing the way. Paul and Luke make reference to a corrupt and perverse generation who will be an obstacle to Jesus’ message. Peter’s letter refers to masters who crookedly and perversely subjugate their slaves. This also speaks to those pagan masters enslaved in idolatry.

Scripture:

“He testified with many other arguments, and was exhorting them, ‘Save yourselves from this corrupt generation.’” Act. 2:40

Jesus speaks to the Jewish’s opposition around Jesus. Jesus also speaks to the world’s opposition to the message of Christianity.

“Every valley shall be filled and every mountain and hill shall be made low. The winding roads shall me made straight, and the rough ways made smooth.” Lk. 3:5

Jesus refers to the ethical and social misconduct rooted in ungodliness and unbelief which will vanish with the coming of the Messiah. This is also becomes the task for John the Baptist in preparing the way.

“Slaves, be subject to your master with all reverence, not only to those who are d and equitable but also to those who are perverse.” 1 Pet.2:18

This scripture passage calls Christians to respect their captors. In addition, the masters (those in authority) are also called to show respect to those who are in captivity. Respect even must be shown to those who are crooked and perverse. This also applies to those pagan masters who are enslaved in idolatry.

Conclusion:

Scoliosis, depraved

I was somewhat surprised that this term is not frequently used in Hellenism, despite its varied and nuanced uses. As Hellenism did influence Christianity, it is seems that there is a casual relationship between these belief systems. Not surprisingly, this term is associated with the character of snakes and dragons.

I did not expect to discover a larger number of instances in the Old Testament. In addition its literal sense, the wisdom books employed this term with a moral and religious sense. It was interesting to see such a high incidence of this term in the book of Proverbs. Perhaps, the serpent (snake) provides the best description of Satan, the tempter.

The New Testament continues the Old Testament’s moral sense of this term. The New Testament makes note of the reality of the slaveowner/slave relationship. Even in this relationship, it was incumbent that respect was to be shown both ways. This follows the Christian practice of loving one’s neighbor. This term speaks to these crooked masters who abused (took advantage) of their slaves.

Scoliosis is a medical condition involving the curvature of the spine. Interestingly, the scalar muscles are a group of uneven muscles which support the neck, spine, and ribs. Scalar, which means uneven, is most likely related to skolios. Hence, a scalene triangle has three unequal sides.  I bet you never thought I would get from crooked to a triangle. Go figure!

‎[Greek] κάμηλος (kamēlos): camel, beast of burden, bearer, carrier; Mt.3:4, Mt.19:24, Mt.23:24, Mk.1:6, Mk.10:25, Lk.18:25

A Bedouin leads a caravan (herd)  of camels

Background Information:

Old Testament: This refers to the Hebrew gamal, meaning bearer or carrier. The camel was the oldest and most common beast of burden in the Near East. The camel’s place of origin was perhaps in Arabia, but it was known in Babylon and Assyria. According to the Old Testament, the camel was loved by the Bedouins. It was also used by the patriarchs on their journeys. The camel, considered unclean (cannot be eaten), was primarily used for transportation. Neither they nor their camels could be numbered (Jgs.6:5). He made the camels kneed by the well outside the city (Gen.24:11). He also took the crescents that were on the necks of their camels (Jgs. 8:21). The camel which indeed chews the cud (Lev.11:4). She arrived in Jerusalem with a very numerous retinue and with camels bearing spices (1 Kgs.10:2). Wearing a hairy garment, with a leather girdle, it is Elijah (2 Kgs.1:8).

New Testament: This term appears in the Synoptic gospels. As with the Old Testament prophets, John the Baptist is found wearing camel’s cloth. In denouncing the Pharisees and scribes, Jesus makes use of a camel in a parable. Jesus use hyperbole to emphasize the impossibility of something. Jesus, making another reference to a camel, exposes the judgment and scrupulosity of the Pharisees. The Pharisee loses all sense of what is great and little in the Law.

Scripture:

“Again I say to you, it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for one who is rich to enter the kingdom of heaven.” Mt.19:24

Jesus uses hyperbole (exaggeration) and extreme contrasts to illustrate the difficulty of a rich man to enter into heaven. The camel is largest beast of burden. Attachment to material possession may often provide an obstacle to discipleship.

“John wore clothing made of camel’s hair and had a leather belt around his waist. His food was locusts and wild honey.” Mt.3:4

Camel’s hair is a cheap and durable garment. This garment is characteristic of simple, nomadic, and missionary lifestyle of the prophet. Zechariah wore hearing clothing. Isaiah wore a sackcloth.

“Blind guides, who strain out the gnat and swallow the camel!” Mt.23:24

Jesus again uses exaggeration to denounce the Pharisees and scribes. The Pharisee strains his drink but forgets righteous, mercy, and faith. The Pharisees loses all perspective

Conclusion:

Camel

I think we can all agree that camels were extremely important and necessary for transportation. Perhaps it was a good thing that camels were considered unclean (not to be eaten). Although I already knew that Isaiah and Ezekiel were prophets, I did not realize that they also had worn the garments of prophets. Isaiah had worn a sackcloth. Ezekiel also worn camel’s garments. It was through a recent post that I was able to find out this information.

Jesus’s parable of the camel of the eye of the needle makes more sense knowing that camels are the largest animals in Palestine. I guess it is very true in that you cannot take your “stuff” and possessions with you to heaven. You have to leave it all behind.  Interestingly, this principle closely relates to Mt. 5:3. This is the first beatitude which says that kingdom of heaven is for the poor in spirit.

[Greek] στεῖρα (steira), [Latin] sterilis: barren, infertility, barren woman, barrenness; Lk.1:7, Lk.1:36, Lk.23:29, Gal.4:27, Heb. 11:11

The Old Testament understanding of the barren womb is likened to hard ground.

Background Information:

Old Testament: This Greek term is related to the Hebrew aqar, which means to uproot. This Hebrew term appears in the context of agriculture with the phrase “a time to plant and a time to uproot.” Women’s wombs were likened to an agricultural field. Barrenness is due to the seeds and seedlings being uprooted. Interestingly, in Old Testament vernacular, women become pregnant through the man’s “seed”. In a sense, the barren womb becomes like hard ground. Sarai was barren; she had no child (Gen.11:30). Isaac entreated the Lord on behalf of his wife, since she was sterile (Gen. 25:21). When the Lord saw that Leah was unloved, He made her fruitful, while Rachel was barren (Gen.29:31). An angel of the Lord appeared to the woman and said to her, ‘Though you are barren and have no children, you will conceive and bear a son.’” Jgs. 13:3). But he would give a double portion to Hannah because he loved her, though the Lord had closed her womb (1Sam. 1:5).

New Testament: This term refers to barrenness and infertility in a variety of different senses and meanings. Elizabeth, an older woman, was barren for many years. However, through God’s actions, Elizabeth gives birth to John. Scripture makes references to Sarai being barren. In other contexts, scripture points out that barrenness may provide a blessing. In addition, Paul mentions that the barren person will receive numerous children.

Scripture:

“But they had no child, because Elizabeth was barren and both were advanced in years.”

The later removal of this barrenness will signify God’s grace. Luke’s readers make reference to the Old Testament in which God would bless the barren woman with a son who would be called to fulfill a divine task.

“For indeed, the days are coming when people will say, ‘Blessed are the barren, the wombs that never bore and breasts that never nursed.’” Lk. 23:29

This points to the Jewish eschatological blessing for the eunuch (Isa. 56:3-5). This also speaks to Paul’s belief that being single is more preferable in promoting the gospel. Other interpretations hold that the coming future will be so devastating that childless women will be better off than those who women have children.

“Rejoice, you barren one who bore no children; break forth and shout, you who were not in labor; for numerous are the children of the deserted on that of her who has a husband.” Gal. 4:27

At first glance, this appears to be a counterintuitive scripture passage. Ordinarily, a barren woman does not consider herself to be blessed. This just does not make much sense. Paul makes reference to Isa. 54:1 which compares Israel to a barren person who unexpectedly receives numerous children. This Old Testament blessing of barrenness has an important theological significance in the New Testament.

Conclusion:

Sterility, sterile

It was interesting to discover how a woman’s womb is like a field. Knowing this, it makes sense that fertility is associated with fruitfulness. And barrenness becomes related to sterility. In other words, it is often hard for some woman to bear children. Then the idea of man’s seed becomes much clearer. This backstory of barrenness and seeds helps to provide some background and context to the parable of the sower (Mt. 13:18-23). Seed sown on hard and rocky ground cannot take root.

It does sound strange how a barren person can receive numerous children. When one thinks about it, it does make sense. A priest, who is single, has many spiritual children in his congregation. The sister (nun), in a teaching ministry, often has many spiritual children. This post also hits close to home for me. I have a lay single vocation. For many years, I have also been given an opportunity in my ministry to teach (catechize) many teenagers. When I was teaching high school RE classes, I was often asked, “What are you teaching your kids today?”

Interestingly, this term is related to stereo, which means strong or firm. Stereo music, because its unique sound properties, produces a deep, firm sound. A stereotype is often sometimes “hard” or difficult to overcome

[Greek] ‎τέχνη (technē) [Latin] ars: art, craft, trade, skill, occupation, technique; Act.17:29, Act.18:3, Rev.18:22

St. Paul works with his fellow tent-makers Aquila and Priscilla

Background Information:

Secular culture: This term illustrates the creative process of making something appear and the bringing forth of something. Expertise, knowledge, and skills become practically applied in various genres (politics, literature, rhetoric, philosophy, and the arts). The value of techne is the end product. Plato’s Republic provides the basis for the philosophers’ craft of ruling in the city. Aristotle uses health as an example of an end that is produced from the techne (skill) of medicine.

Old Testament: Interestingly, the Old Testament culture really did not have an applicable term pertaining to the fine arts. It was only until the 20^th century that such a Hebrew term was developed. Perhaps, the traditional Old Testament cultural values did not have the need for such a term. It seems that the Aramaic term umanut, meaning craftsmanship, provides the closest meaning to the Greek word techne. This fragrant powder, expertly prepared, is to be salted and so kept pure and sacred (Ex. 30:35). The various artisans who were doing the work made the tabernacle with its ten sheets woven of fine linen (Ex.36:8). You have available workers, stonecutters, masons, carpenters, and experts in every craft (2 Chr.22:15). They continue to sin, making for themselves molten images, silver idols according to their skill, all of them work of artisans (Hos.13:2).

New Testament: Essentially, this term refers to a craft, skill, or trade. In Athens, Paul appeals to the religiosity of Greeks, who worship various gods, including an unknown God. Paul mentions that God’s divinity cannot be fashioned by gold, silver, stone, or human art and imagination. Paul, a tentmaker by profession, supports his ministry with his craft. In many languages there is no special term for craft.

Scripture:

“Since therefore we are the offspring of God, we ought not to think that the divinity is like an image fashioned from gold, silver, or stone or human art and imagination.” Act.17:29

Paul mentions that God cannot be limited or defined by images created by artisans.

“And because he practiced the same trade, stayed with them and worked, for they were tentmakers by trade.” Act.18:3

Paul, a tentmaker, supported his ministry with his craft. Paul also associated with Aquila and Priscilla, whom were also tentmakers.

Conclusion:

Technique, technical, art, artisan, artistic, artistry

I would say that the ancient Greco-Roman secular culture has made a profoundly great contribution to developing the skills (talents) in various genres such as philosophy, rhetoric, literature, sciences, and the arts. This is easily understood, considering all of the geniuses from ages past.

It is probably not surprising that the simple, agrarian Old Testament culture would have no need for a term for the fine arts. This society would be more concerned with trades, craftsmanship, and apprenticeship. Even in the New Testament, it was important that Jesus learned carpentry from His stepfather Joseph. Even Paul supported his ministry through his trade of tent making.

Art is a technique. It is through this that we have encountered so many masterpieces by great artists in painting, sculpture, literature, and in other fields.

[Greek] λογίζομαι (logizomai), [Latin] cogitare, [Latin] reputare, [Latin] deputare, [Latin] existimare, [Latin] aribitrare, [Latin] acceptare: to reckon, to take into account, to regard, to suppose, to count, to have books balanced, to reason, to conclude, to calculate, to compute, to set one’s account, to make a calculation of something; 1Cor. 13:5, 2Cor5:19, Lk.22:37, 2Cor.10:2, Mk.15:28, Rom.4:3, Gal.3:6, Jas.2:23

In Athens sits the statue of a pondering Plato. Athena stands in the background.

Background Information:

Secular world: This term is used primarily in reckoning, in conducting commercial transactions, and in considering philosophical and political matters. Pertaining to commercial dealings and legal language, one reckons the amount to be paid and charges the one who owes this amount. Deliberating involves the non-emotional thinking of the philosopher who seeks knowledge and engages in political persuasion. Plato, “though unaffected by the emotions,” seeks to grasp objective facts.

Old Testament: In addition to reckoning and crediting, this term provides the sense of considering in varied and nuanced ways. In addition, this term takes on a more personal, emotional, and subjective character in value judgments and accusations. This term is also used in the religious sphere in imputing righteousness and judgment. The Lord credited Abraham as an act of righteousness (Gen.15:6). No reckoning was asked of them regarding the funds provided to them (2Kgs. 22:7). Judah thought she was a harlot (Gen. 38:15). Here is a people that lives apart and does not think reckon itself among the nation (Num.23:9). Saul intended to have David fall into the hands of the Phillistines (1 Sam. 18:25). The human heart plans the way, but the Lord directs the steps (Prov.16:9).

New Testament: This term is used quite frequently (around 40 times) in the New Testament. This term is used with the sense of to reason about, to keep a mental record, to hold a view, and to charge to an account. Paul mentions that our spiritual perspective and understanding will mature over time. God, by not counting our trespasses us, allows for forgiveness. As Abraham believed God, Abraham was credited with righteousness.

Scripture:

“Abraham reasoned that God was able to raise even from the dead and he received Isaac back as a symbol.” Heb. 11:19

Abraham was so faithful to God that he would offer up son Isaac to be offered up as a sacrifice. Abraham believed in the power of God to raise Isaac from the dead. Through God’s intervention, Abraham was able to receive back Isaac. This event foreshadows the Father offering up His own Son Jesus.

“When I was a child, I used to talk as a child, thinks as a child, reason as a child; when I became a man, I put aside childish things.” 1 Cor.13:11

Paul view his ministry in terms of thinking, judging, planning, resolving, and reason.  In order to see clearly, one need to put aside childish (immature) reasoning.

“God was reconciling the world to Himself in Christ, not counting their trespasses against them and entrusting to us the message of reconciliation.” 2 Cor. 5:19

God does count trespasses against us. God is will to forgive our trespasses. God provides an avenue for reconciliation.

“It is my judgment, therefore, that we ought to stop troubling the Gentiles who turn to God.” Acts.15:19

The Council of Jerusalem determined that the Gentiles need not be subject to circumcision laws.  However, the Gentile must avoid pollution from idols, meet offered from sacrifices, blood, and unlawful marriage.

Conclusion:

Logic, logical, cogitation, repute, reputation, deputy, exist, arbitrate, arbitration, acceptance

I certainly can see that Plato would use this term in pondering philosophy. I think this was helpful in identifying the underlying idea of reckoning in commercial transactions. This later provides some insight in how reckoning ties in with righteousness, judgement, and justification in the religious sphere. This plays an important role in the story of Abraham.

I was not surprised that this idea of reckoning would continue in the New Testament. Paul further develops this notion. I was surprised by the varied and nuanced uses of the idea of considering in both the Old Testament and New Testament.

The earliest notions of logic was developed by Aristotle. This post helped me to get a glimpse of the meaning of righteousness, justification, and judgment. However, this is not the time nor place  to ponder such important theological subject matters.

[Greek] αὐτόματος (automatos), [Latin] spontaneitas: acting of one’s own will, of its own accord, of itself, spontaneous, automatic, of oneself, self-moved, by itself, without any cause, automatically, moved by one’s own impulse, capable of self-movement; Mk.4:28, Act.12:10

Heron of Alexandria (10-70 A.D) invents the first coin operated machine dispensing holy water

Background Information:

Ancient Greek History: In this time period, this term is used in the sense of being left to oneself, being a category of causation, and being automated. Aristotle (384–322 BC) lists this as one of the three categories (natural, artistic, and automatic) of causation. Socrates (470-399 BC) refers to himself as a self-taught (automatos) philosopher. Plato’s Protagoras, a dramatic masterpiece, refers to sons left on their own (automatos) being unschooled, uncivilized, and lacking manners. Heron of Alexandria (10-70 AD) was the inventor of the first coin operated machine dispensing holy water.

Old Testament: This term is used in the sense of spontaneously producing, growing of itself, and falling by itself. This is a signal for God’s grace, referring to the free growth of the Sabbath year. This term is traditionally used to describe what springs up by itself in the second year and could be served as food and eaten when no grain could be sown. The aftergrowth (spontaneously producing) of your harvest you shall not reap (Lev.25:5). You shall eat the aftergrowth, next year, what grows of itself (2 Kgs.19:29). Like ears of corn falling of itself (Job 24:24)

New Testament: This term occurs only two times in the New Testament, having the sense of being self-caused and without evident cause. In order for the disciples to understand, Jesus presents a parable of a good seed like the kingdom of heaven. Of its own accord, the seed yields fruit by itself. The kingdom of heaven grows apart from human efforts. Peter, imprisoned and chained, seeing an angel, finds himself unshackled. Then the iron gate opens by itself.

Scripture:

“They passed the first guard, then the second, and came to the iron gate leading to the city, which open for them by itself.” Act. 12:10

The angel frees Peter from captivity. Peter follows the angel was able to pass through the gate out of the city.

“Of its own accord the land yields fruit, first the blade, then the ear, then the full grain in the ear.” Mk.4:28

Jesus presents a parable likening the kingdom of heaven like a good seed. The kingdom of heaven grows by itself, without need to human efforts.

Conclusion:

Automatic, automaton, spontaneous, spontaneity

It was interesting to discover the wide variety of nuanced uses of this term in ancient Greek history. So I guess it is not surprising that this term could be used in a positive and negative sense. I was also not aware of the early Greek technical genius of Heron.

I noticed that there is quite a stark difference in the use of this term from the Old Testament to the New Testament. The Old Testament primarily deals with agriculture. However, the New Testament uses this term in more profound ways in the workings of the kingdom and the Holy Spirit.

An android is essentially an automaton resembling a human being in form and movement. This term was first coined in 1837 by Francois Rabelais during the Renaissance. In the Enlightenment, the working class person, poor and outcast, devoid of freedom and economic opportunities, were also called  automatons.

[Greek] πίνω (pinō), [Latin] poto, [Latin] bibere, [Latin] imbibere, [German] trinken, [French] absorber: to drink, to imbibe, to soak up, to experience, to absorb, to draw in; 79 scriptural references

The bunch of grapes resembles the shape of a pine (pinot) cone. In this secular post-Christian culture, there most likely will be a bunch who will “drink” judgment and condemnation.

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term means to quench thirst, to drink, to absorb, to suck in, to appease, to live by, and to kill. Some of these figurative senses also appear in a religious context. Fasting from drinking was done in preparation for initiation into the mysteries. Cultic meals (and drinks) were intended to unite men and the gods in table fellowship. All kinds of drinks impart various kinds of potency (intoxication). Drinks induced ecstatic inspiration by the spirit of the deities. Because of the gods’ aloofness (distance) from table fellowship, this was not considered a sacramental meal.

Old Testament/Judaism: Drinking is a subject from the standpoint of abstinence. Only over a period of time there are relaxations. Eventually, drinking becomes a cultic means of initiating fellowship with God in the Israelite covenantal or sacrificial meal. In addition to its literal and cultic use, this term is also used figuratively to drink (suffer) judgment, to be thirsty (seek salvation), and to drink in knowledge and wisdom. The one who drinks Yahweh’s cup incurs suffering upon oneself from His judgment. In one sense in the Old Testament, one who drinks water seeks to receive the Spirit. In the Torah, “to drink the water of a scholar” means for a student to seek a teacher’s wisdom.

New Testament:  This term means to drink, to experience, and to soak in. Jesus brings a new paradigm shift about drinking, fasting, and purity laws. Unlike John the Baptist and his followers, Jesus does not abstain from eating and dancing. One aspect of Jesus’ drinking becomes sacramental. This drink represents His redemptive dying. Drinking the cup of wrath and suffering involves one undergoing God’s judgment. Drinking the water of life signifies the means of how salvation is offered by Jesus. Jesus provides this living water. Jesus thirsts in offering this living water to the woman. (For purpose of brevity of soaking this information in, I will exclude literal drinking).  ☺☺☺

Scripture:

Mt.20:22: [Jesus]: Can you drink the cup that I am going to drink?

Jn.4:10: [Jesus]: ‘If you knew the gift of God and who is saying to you, ‘Give me a drink’, you would have asked Him and He would have given you living water.’

1Cor.10:21: You cannot drink the cup of the Lord and also the cup of demons. You cannot partake of the table of the Lord and of the table of the demons.

1Cor.11:29: For anyone who eats and dinks without discerning the Body, eats and drinks judgment on himself.

Heb.6:7: Ground that absorbed (drunk in) the rain brings forth crops useful to those for whom it is cultivated receives a blessing from God.

Rev.14:19-20: The angel swung his sickle and cut the earth’s vintage. The angel threw it into the great wine press of God’s fury.

The Grapes of Wrath: The originates from the notion of receiving (drinking) God’s wrath. In John Steinbeck’s book The Grapes of Wrath, the people are getting angry, frustrated, and filled with wrath. The food is being destroyed and the people are starving.

Pinot: In the French language, this term means pine. Essentially, this refers to the bunch (cluster) of grapes that look like the shape of a pine cone. Pinot noir refers to red wine grapes. Pinot blanc refers to white wine grapes.

Conclusion

Pinot noir, pinot blanc, potency, potent, potential, imbibe, drink

It was quite interesting to discover the wide variety of secular and nuanced uses of this term. I think we all can see how the Hellenistic (pagan) use of drinking provides an incomplete precursor to the importance of drinking in table fellowship and in sacramental practices. In ancient Greece and Rome, there were drinking parties (symposia), a Hellenistic social custom which took place after the meal. This was a forum for the men to debate, to praise and to plot. This becomes the early precursor to the business symposium, frequently occurring the corporate (business world).

In the Old Testament the disciple (student) “drinks in” the wisdom from the teacher (rabbi).

Mt.20:22:  The cup that Jesus will drink is an Old Testament metaphor for the acceptance of God’s plan (crucifixion) for Him. Jesus will take on sins on behalf of humanity. Jesus states that others who share in His sufferings and persecution will also “drink” this bitter cup of suffering.

Jn.4:9: Jesus, being counter-cultural, asks for a drink from a Samaritan woman, who was considered ritually unclean. Jews were forbidden to drink from any vessel they handled. Jesus also uses irony in the parable of the Good Samaritan. (The Samaritans were despised by the Jews.)

Jn.4:10: Jesus offers us a living water (influences of the Holy Spirit). With this water, one never thirsts, receiving refreshment, satisfaction, faith, love, joy, and everlasting life.

1Cor.10:20: become participants (having fellowship) with demons: evil spirts, idols, false gods, sin, immorality, worldly philosophies

1Cor.10:21: drink the cup of demons: drinking toasts at feasts and celebrations, drinking in fellowship with idols, drinking to evil powers

1Cor.11:27: drinking the Lord’s cup unworthily: lack of faith and reverence, improver observance of this ordinance, failing to follow Jesus’ intentions, failing to grasp the meaning of Jesus’ death

1Cor.11:28: examining oneself (before drinking the cup): discerning and understanding  the meaning of Jesus’ death

1Cor.11:29: drinking judgment upon oneself: one will be guilty of a sin against the Lord Himself

Rev.14:19-20: The reaping and treading of the grapes symbolizes the doom of the ungodly

Pinot comes from the pine cone shape of the bunch of grapes. As you also know, the Latin meaning provides for the etymology of the related word “potent.”  Not surprisingly, fermented grapes (wine) can be potent to some people.

Update: For Catholics receiving the Eucharist: many of us often can often fall into the trap of “going through the motions” in not fully realizing who [Jesus in the Eucharist] we have received. The same can be said in our attention, participation, and preparation for Mass.

“LGBTQ Catholics”: They seek to go to Mass and receive the sacraments but fail to acknowledge, repent, or discontinue their sinful lifestyle. They would be receiving the sacrament in a state of mortal sin. (Not good for your eternal soul!) They will be ‘drinking judgment’ upon themselves.

Priests improperly celebrating the Mass and causing sacrilege will ‘drink condemnation upon themselves in their vocation as priest.

Catholic Democrats in the House of Representatives state that Catholic teaching support legal abortion. They conveniently ignore the evil sin of taking of human life. They will be judged for publicly advocating for supporting abortion.

Governor Gavin Newsome wants California to be the premiere destination for “abortion tourism”. (Not a good look to be a travel destination for sin!)

Synodal process (pre-determined outcome): Questions are raised about its validity when a hand-picked group ratifies an already prepared agenda. One should not blindly accept the notion that the Holy Spirit ordains everything that results from the synodal process. With this logic, the Holy Spirit can approve of anything one wants, even something controversial or heretical. This calls into question the notion of erroneously invoking the Holy Spirit in order to promote one’s agenda. Scripture states Church leaders will inevitably held to a higher standard when being judged by God. (Church leaders must be reminded about this!)

[Greek] διδάσκω (didaskō): to teach, to instruct, to provide instruction, to explain, to teach doctrine, to lead to deeper understanding, to teach in a group setting; Mt.11:1, Lk11:1, Rom.2:21, Col.1:28, Col.3:16, 1Tim.2:12, 1Tim;11, 2Tim 2:2, Heb.5:12, 1Jn.2:27, Mt.9:35, Jn.14:26

A student using a wax tablet during this education

Background Information:

Secular/Hellenism: This term essentially focuses on the purpose and content of the message with the intent of teaching, instructing, and imparting formation. In the area of practical arts and crafts, the teacher forms a bridge to the knowledge and ability of the pupil. The aim is the highest possible development of the talents of the pupil. This provides the framework of a systematic and organized method of instruction for the pupil. This term is infrequently used in the religious sense. Although Hellenism sought to develop talents and abilities, this term is rarely found in Hellenism, where the gods were seen as distant and aloof. In the theater, conductors (poets) often instructed and trained the chorus in preparation for the performance of the play.

Old Testament: This term, occurring quite frequently, is related to several Hebrew terms. This subject matter may involve the religious sphere (doing God’s will), the use of weapons, or practicing a song. The religious sense of instruction becomes more concerned with the whole person and his education in the deepest sense. It makes no difference who provides the instruction. God, the head of the family, or the righteous may assume this function. Although there may be some commonality, the secular sense primarily aims to develop one’s talents and capabilities. On the other hand, the religious sense applies to the whole person and his education in the deepest sense. Therefore, I teach you the statutes and decrees as the Lord, my God has commanded me (Deut. 4:5). Whom did he consult to gain knowledge? (Isa. 40:14). Who trained my hands for war till my arms could bend a bow of brass (2Sam.22:35). Write out this song, then, for yourselves (Deut.31:19). Does the one who guides nations not rebuke? (Psa. 93:10). Teach me to do your will, for you are my God (Psa.142:10). Teach them to your children, speaking of them at home and abroad (Deut.11:19). Do not drive my from your presence, nor take from my your holy spirit (Psa. 50:13).

New Testament: This term, primarily meaning to teach or instruct, occurs in the gospels and in the first part of Acts in reference to the first followers and the early Church. Teaching is one of the most prominent functions of Jesus in His public ministry. Places of instruction included the synagogues, the temple, and other locations. Upon standing while reading scripture, Jesus would sit down and address the crowd. Likewise, Jesus would often sit down and teach His disciples and followers. The whole teaching is with a view of life with reference to God and neighbor. Jesus appeals to others calling for a decision to either the will of God or against it. Jesus does not view the Law in an absolute sense. The Law and scripture are a confirmation of His own relationship with the Father. Jesus is advancing the claim of God, which has as its goal the education and reformation of man according to the will of God.

The Gospels: Matthew’s gospel is essentially a teaching manual, where Jesus teaches in the synagogues, the Temple, and in the public arena. Luke’s gospel, influenced by the Hellenistic tradition, was written to the Gentles and the lowly common folk. Mark’s gospel was written in a blunt (matter of fact) way for those Gentiles and Romans who were experiencing persecution.  Essentially, Mark was trying to say, “Listen, folks, it is not going to be easy to be a Christian.” Unlike the other gospels, John’s gospel focuses on Christology, the nature of Christ. Teaching and instruction comes from Jesus’ inspiration from the Father and Holy Spirit.

Scripture:

“Jesus went around to all the towns and villages, teaching in their synagogues, proclaiming the gospel of the kingdom, and curing every disease and illness.” Mt.9:35

This scripture shows the various locations of Jesus’ teaching ministry.

“He was praying in a certain place, and when He had finished, one of His disciples said to Him, ‘Lord, teach us to pray just as John taught his disciples.” Lk.11:1

A strong relationship (bridge) exists between Jesus and the disciples. This allows for the transmission of Jesus’ knowledge (teachings) to the disciples.

“The Advocate, the Holy Spirit that the Father will send in My name—He will teach you everything and remind you of all that I told you.” Jn. 14:26

This scripture shows how Jesus draws inspiration from the Father and Holy Spirit.

Didache: The Didache or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles was written before 150 A.D. Although not considered a canonical work, the Didache provides an insightful picture of the practices of the early Christian community. Didache 11,3 states “in regard to the apostles and prophets, act according to the doctrine of the gospel.” The Didache is essentially an instruction manual for the early Christians.

Conclusion:

Didache, didactic

In the Greco-Roman culture, it was very important for the young person to have a well-rounded education. This system of education became an early precursor to our current system of education of young people. I thought it was quite ingenious to have developed the wax tablet. This was an idea very much ahead of its time. Now today we have electronic tablets with a stylus.

In the Old Testament culture, the teacher (rabbi)/disciple relationship was also very instrumental in teaching the Law. Jesus continues this teacher/disciple relationship in the New Testament. It is interesting to note that each gospel had an intended purpose and audience. The Jews can more readily identify with kings. That is why Matthew’s gospel is identified with the three kings. The poor and the outcast can more readily identify with shepherds. That is why Luke’s gospel is identified with shepherds.

It makes sense that this term is very much stressed during the beginning of the Christian movement, which needed instruction. The Didache is the perfect illustration of this. Let’s be honest, the word “didactic” is not exactly a frequent word in current conversation. For example, a didactic novel sets out to make a moral argument. So I think you get the idea.

[Greek] λατρεύω (latreuō), [Latin] servire, [Latin] deservire: to worship, to serve, to worship idols (idolatry), to offer, to minister (to God), to do service, to render religious homage, to serve in religious duties, to pay homage, to render service; Lk. 1:74, Lk.2:37, Lk.4:8, Act.7:7, Act. 7:42, Act.24:14, Act.26:7, Act.27:23, Heb.8:5, Heb.9:9, Heb.9:14, Heb.10:2, Heb. 12:28, Heb.13:10, Rom.1:9, Rom.1:25, Php. 3:3, 2Tim.1:3, Rev.7:15, Rv.22:3

Helpers (acolytes) were employed to assist in worship at the temple at Delphi

Background information:

Secular/Greek Hellenism: In the secular culture, this term means to serve for a reward, to render services, and to serve (with no expectation of a reward). These situations occur where one works for free or works as a slave. Ordinary work is often rendered. This is seen as one who works in the service of the king. Any such disobedience may lead to punishment or death. This is seen as one in the service at the temple at Delphi. Such person is called a latreia (hired servant). In the classical Greco-Roman culture, it was a great honor to serve the state in some capacity. Serving the state may include being a civil servant, a soldier, or a govt. official (politician). Outsiders, farmers, and rustic villagers, not interested in serving the state, were subtly looked down upon by the city dwellers.

Old Testament: This term occurs around 90 times in the Old Testament. This term predominately occurs in the books of Exodus, Deuteronomy, and Joshua. This term is rarely associated with the prophets. This term means to serve in a religious sense, especially defined by sacrifice and cultic worship. In contrast to its original Greek Hellenistic meaning, this term does not apply to serving others in a religious or secular manner. In addition to its external cultic worship sense, this term also applies to one’s inner attitude, disposition of the heart, and moral conduct necessary for worship. This helps to shed some light on the uniqueness of the religion of Israel. You will worship God on this very mountain (Ex.3:12). You (Israel) will serve the enemies whom the Lord will send against you (Dt.28:48). You proceed to venerate and worship strange gods (2 Chr. 7:19). Your God, you shall worship (Ex.23:25). Cast out the gods your fathers served (Jos.24:14). Let my son go, that he may serve Me (Ex.4:23). If the Lord ever brings me back to Jerusalem, I will worship Him in Hebron (2 Sam.15:8). And there you will serve strange gods of wood and stone, such as you an your fathers have not known (Dt.26:64).

New Testament: Due to the influence of the Old Testament culture, this term never refers to human relations. Not surprisingly, this term takes on a strong cultic sense in the book of Hebrews. However, this cultic sense becomes secondary leading to an attitude of ministry and prayer. Essentially, this cultic sense becomes spiritualized. The New testament extends this term to every form of divine worship. The sense of prayer (adoration) is found quite frequently in scripture. Such examples include the temptation story and Anna’s prayer at the temple. These examples of adoration are seen when the recipient (God) is not readily visible (absent).

Scripture:

“Rescued from the hand of enemies, without fear we might worship Him.” Lk.1:74

This pertains to having a rightful attitude toward God.

“The Lord, your God, you shall worship and Him alone you shall worship.”  Mt.4:10

This speaks specifically to worshipping God.

“They worship in a copy and shadow of the heavenly sanctuary…See that you make everything according to the pattern shown you on the mountain.” Heb. 8:5

The temple and cultic represents the earthly pattern of the heavenly temple.

Letter of Cornelius, Bishop of Rome, to Fabius of Antioch  (251 A.D)

“Yet he (Novatian) was not unaware – how could he be? – that in it there are 46 presbysters, 7 deacons, 7 subdeacons, 42 acolytes….”

Acolytes comes from the Greek akolouthos (meaning an attendant).  We see them all the time in church, assisting and helping in the liturgical services.

Conclusion:

Idolatry, idolater, serve, deserve

I think most of us can visualize the acolyte serving the king. The acolyte bows down to the king saying, “Yes, your Magjesty. It will be done.” Or perhaps we can visualize the acolyte assisting in worship services at the Delphi Oracle. However, one may not readily associate an acolyte with a civil servant in the Greco-Roman culture.

When one thinks of the Old Testament, one can easily visualize cultic worship, either worshiping God or some idols. I did not realize that this term also applies to one’s disposition and moral character, needed to properly worship. Because of the Jesus’ role of Messiah, it is understandable that this cultic sense of worship would be overshadowed and minimized. There is no more need for such type of a cultic worship. It is interesting to note how that this term applies to prayer and adoration. Adoration becomes a spiritual form of worship.

The acolyte ministry began in Old Testament times. Scriptures tells of Samuel assisting the priest and of Elisha assisting Elijah. Even today, we see acolytes fulfilling many roles in the worship services. We see acolytes assisting in carrying books, chalices, and distributing Communion to Eucharistic ministers at Mass.

[Greek] ἔξοδος (exodos), [Latin] exodus: departure, exodus, exit, decease, way out, decrease; Lk.9:31, Heb.11:22, 2Pet.1:15

Moses leads the Israelites’ exodus out of Egypt

Background Information:

Hellenism: This term is used in a variety of ways: a means, an exit, a door, a mouth of a river, a going away, a banishment, a disappearance, a dissolution of marriage, a marching (campaign) out, a procession, a death (departure), and a coming to an end. The sense of the end of life is rarely found. Plato refers to forgetfulness as an exodus of the memory. The playwright Lysistrata makes mention of women getting away from their daily labors and obligations. This term also refers to the final scene in the Greek comedy (or tragedy) where the actors and chorus leave the stage.

Old Testament: This term occurs over 70 times, conveying a wide range of meanings with several related Hebrew terms. In Hebrew, this term essentially means going out. In Exodus, the second book of the Old Testament, Israel’s identity is deeply ingrained with deliverance. An architectural sense is used in reference to entrances, gates, and doors. This term can mean death (departure), going out, an ending, and a remaining. Departure can take on both a locational and chronological sense.  A geographical sense is used in reference to the outside nature (outer bounds) of the street in contrast in the inside nature (inner bounds) of the house. These chambers, just as long and wide, with the same exits (Prov.42:11). A just man gives way before the wicked (Prv.25:26). She ordered maid to stand outside the bedroom (Jdt.13:3). Joab lead the army out in force (1Chr.20:1). After their departure from Egypt, the Israelites came to the desert of Sinai (Ex.19:1). They seemed to be dead; and their passing away was thought an affliction (Wis.3:2). Rally your courage, once the soul has left (Sir.38:23). From the day one leaves his mother’s womb (Sir.40:1).

New Testament: Unlike the Old Testament, this term is used in a very narrow sense. Interestingly, this term rarely occurs (three times) in the New Testament. The book of Hebrews makes mention of the Exodus of the Israelites. In the two other instances, it means the end of life. This simply means the end or conclusion of Jesus’ life and work on earth. There is no reference to the destination of Jesus. The resurrection is not regarded a part of the conclusion of Jesus’ earthly life.

Scripture:

“By faith Joseph, near the end of his life, spoke of the Exodus of the Israelites and gave instructions about his bones.” Heb. 11:22

Joseph had faith in the future fulfillment of God’s promise. Joseph’s faith was renewed when near death.

“And behold, two men were conversing with Him, Moses and Elijah. Jesus who appeared in glory and spoke of His exodus that He was going to accomplish in Jerusalem.” Lk.9:30-31

This exodus of Jesus refers to the death, resurrection and ascension of Jesus that will take place in Jerusalem. This exodus also calls to mind the Israelite exodus to the Promised land.

“I shall make every effort to enable you always to remember these things after my departure.” 2 Pet.1:15

This calls to mind Peter’s witness to the truth, even as he faces the end of his life

Conclusion

Exodus

I was surprised to discover the many varied and nuanced uses of the term in Greek Hellenism. It is interesting to note that this term was an actual stage device used by the performers to leave the stage at the end of the play. The Greek playwright Aristophanes wrote the comic play Lysistrata in 411 B.C.  As a means to force the men to end the Peloponnesian war, the women went on an “exodus” (strike). Sounds like a very practical caste of women characters! Plato makes mention of forgetfulness as an exodus of the memory. One wonders if Plato might have been referring to dementia or other memory related conditions during old age.

I was not surprised that exodus plays a very prominent role in the Old Testament. I was surprised by the frequent nuanced meanings used for this term.

Speaking of exits, here is something you may not realize. You are seated in a stadium or arena. You see those tunnels (exits) located under the seats all around the arena. This passage is actually called a vomitorium. Yes. You heard this right! I imagine some of you will make your exodus and Google this. This is where you fans “spew” out of the arena. These are also pathways in which the actors enter and leave the stage. Contrary to popular legend, it is most likely that the ancient Romans never designated spaces for the purpose of actual vomiting.  So, I will not take my exit from this post.

[Greek] προσφέρω (prospherō), [Latin] offere, [Latin] oblatus, [Latin] inducere, [Latin] arbitrare, [French] entrer, [French] introdruirer: to bring to, to offer, to present, to hand over, to lead to, to bear toward, to carry forward, to succeed, to make an offering, to carry to, to prosper, to deal with, to render successfully; Heb. 12:7, Mt.22:19, Lk.23:14, Mt.2:11, Mt.4:24, Mt. 8:16, Mt. 9:2, Mt. 9:32, Mt.12:2, Mt. 14:35, Mt.17:16, Mk.10:13, Lk.23:36, Jn.19:29

The Jews hand over Jesus to Pontus Pilate

Background Information:

Secular use: This term is used in a variety of ways. In a historical context, this term means to bring news, to act, to present gifts, and to encounter someone. In a poetic context, this term is used to bring to and to apply. In a medical context, this term means to set before and to give to. In a philosophical context, this term means to take or to enjoy.

Old Testament: This term refers to several related Hebrew meanings. In addition to its cultic sense, this term refers to approaching, appointing, presenting, and appearing. He drew near a camp (Ex.32:19). I shall appoint myself before Him (Job.31:37). Pharaoh was already near then the Israelites looked up (Ex.14:10). Bring an animal offering the Lord (Lev.1:2). You must present yourselves by tribes (Josh.7:14). You have become an object of scorn (Eze.22:4). Moses laid their case before the Lord (Num.27:5).

New Testament: This term is used in the sense of bringing, acting (behaving) towards others, handing over, and offering. In providing discipline, God acts like a father. The sick, paralyzed, and possessed are brought to Jesus. Jesus is handed over to Pilate. Money, coins, and talents are given. The traditional Old Testament practice of offering sacrifices becomes obsolete in light of Jesus’ role of Messiah.

Scripture:

“Endure your trials as discipline; God treats you as sons. For what son is there whom his father does not discipline?” Heb.12:7

Trials (suffering) can be viewed as discipline. Like a father who knows what’s best for us, God administers discipline like a loving Father.

“You brought this man to me and accused Him of inciting the people to revolt. I have conducted my investigation in your presence and have not found this man guilty of the charges you have brought against him.” Lk.23:14

The Jews hand Jesus over to Pilate. The Jews fear Jesus’s authority and influence.

“Show me the coin that pays the census tax. Then they handed Him the Roman coin.” Mt.22:19

Jews handed Jesus a Roman coin in order to trick Jesus about who has authority. Jesus sees through their deception and indicates different types of authority.

Prospero: This is the Spanish name meaning wealthy. This is the Latin name meaning fortune. This is also the name of one of Shakespheare’s more complex characters. Like his name, Prospero “succeeds” in both garnering sympathy, scorn, and finally again sympathy in the play The Tempest. The Tempest serves as Shakespeare’s swan song as a successful and prolific playwright. Many critics have commented that Prospero becomes a surrogate for Shakespeare’s creative process.

Conclusion:

Proffer, prosper, prosperity, offer, oblate, induce, introduction, arbitration, enter

I would haven’t considered that this term would be used in a poetic or medical context. I am not surprised that this term is found in a philosophical context. To be honest, I am not very familiar with Shakespeare’s The Tempest. Perhaps this character Prospero is appropriately named for being so successful in emotionally manipulating the readers (and audience).

Considering the predominant cultic practice in the Old Testament culture, I was surprised by the many other uses of this term. Later, in the New Testament culture, the practice of offering sacrifices essentially stops, undergoing a profound paradigm shift. This is in part due to role of Jesus as the Messiah, who is accessible to us. Instead of offerings, people come to Him to get healed.

Although, the word proffer is hardly used, this term relates to offering a resignation or a pension plan. When one carries forward, accomplishes, or succeeds, one prospers.

[Greek] φωσφόρος (phōsphoros), [Latin] lucifer: light bringer, the morning star, day star, giving light, lighter bearer, 2 Pet. 1:19

Venus, the Morning Star

Background Information:

Cosmology: This term was used to identify the planet Venus in its morning appearance. This planet lies in its orbit between Earth and the Sun. Depending on Venus’s position, it can be seen in the eastern morning sky before the Sun rises or as the evening star in the western even sky before the Sun sets. Venus is the brightest object in the sky after the Sun and the Moon. Venus never rises.

Greek Mythology: Phosphorus (Light-Bearer) was the name of the morning star Venus. Eosphoros (Dawn-Bearer) was the name of the same evening star. Art has portrayed this god as a youthful rider bearing a torch. This god was called upon by those who needed guidance (illumination) in their paths

Old Testament: In the Old Testament and Rabbinic Judaism, the stars receive and execute the divine commands of God. Stars become an aspect or manifestation of God. A star can represent a king as a figurative extension of a lofty body. In Hellenism, light signifies what is grasped philosophically and speculatively. However, in the sphere of faith, light signifies saving power. Oftentimes, these belief systems may intersect.

Scripture:

“How you have fallen from the heavens, O Morning Star, son of the dawn!” Isa.12:14

This refers to the king of Babylon who fell from grace. There is no mention of this king’s prior rise to grace. As a general rule, this rise couldn’t have occurred without God blessing. Then Babylon fell due to its desire for wealth and power. The word Lucifer was the common Latin word in the Vulgate (4^th century) for the Greek phosphoros. This is the only scripture passage that in which Lucifer could be perceived as a personal name. In other places in scripture, lucifer refers to the dawn and the constellation. Interestingly, Peter also refers to Rome as Babylon.

New Testament: 2 Peter reminds its readers of the divine authenticity of Christ’s teachings. Scripture makes mention of a shining star (Jesus) who will finally emerge after a long period of darkness. The following scripture passages (2 Pet. 1:20-21) indicates an assurance of this prophecy. A prophecy will come not through a matter of personal interpretation, but through human beings moved by the Holy Spirit.

Scripture:

“Moreover, we possess the prophetic message that is altogether reliable. You will do well to be attentive to it, as to a lamp shining in a dark place, until day dawns and the morning star rises in your hearts.” 2 Pet.1:19

Jesus will be that morning star provide light in this darkness. Scripture assures that this will come to pass.

Conclusion:

Phosphorous, phosphorescent, phosphorescence

It is not surprising that Greek mythology comes from cosmology. With this comes the human desire to seek help from the gods. Man sought illumination and guidance from Phosphoros, the Light Bearer.

The Old Testament culture continues to see these lights as a manifestation of God. It is interesting to see how the name Lucifer becomes identified with Satan. Although Lucifer is not directly tied to Isa.12:14, there are still elements of Lucifer being a fallen angel.

The term Lucifer comes from the Latin lux (meaning light) and -ferre (meaning to carry). This essentially means “light bringing”. Paul mentions that Satan masquerades as an angel of light (2 Cor. 11:14). Jesus mentions that Satan falls like lightning from the sky (Lk.10:18). Lucifer becomes a fallen angel. Dante’s Inferno and Milton’s Paradise Lost make mention of Lucifer.

One more piece of light trivia: Phosphorus glows in the dark. It has phosphorescent properties.

[Greek] ὀρχέομαι (orcheomai), [French] danser: to dance, to set in motion, to leap, to perform, to lift up the foot, to dance in a row; Mt.11:7, Mt.14:6, Mk.6:22, Lk.7:32

A fresco of King David leaping before the Ark (by Johann Baptist Wezel Bergl)

Background Information:

Greek theater (stage): The orchestra (dancing area) was the semi-circular part of the theater between the stage and the audience. This is the area where the dancers and musicians performed. A choros is a group of dancers. An orchestres is an individual dancer, performer, or actor. In other situations, the orchestra served as VIP seating for important officials (senators, magistrates, playwrights, philanthropists).

Choros: This group of singers, dancers, and actors would perform in the orchestra. On some occasions, they would wear costumes in their performance. Typically, they would dance rhythmically in circles in separate groups. In ancient Greece there was no mixing of gender in their performances. The term choros is actually related to the Greek choreuin, meaning to dance. The playwright or (sometimes the patron), who managed the choros, was a chorego (choreographer).

Old Testament: This term, expressed by 6 different Hebrew words, conveys a much more meaningful and richer sense in Old Testament worship. Dancing is perhaps more accurately described as leaping, skipping, and whirling. Most notably, King David leaps before the Ark of the Covenant. In addition, there are instances of dancing over ill-gotten spoils, dancing before idols, and dancing for joy. Several scripture passages indicate the time to dance and a divine command to dance. Leaping and skipping usually occurs upon the sound of a voice or musical instrument.

Leaping and skipping: King David was jumping and leaping before the Lord (2 Sam.6:16). The Amalekites were celebrating because of all the rich plunder they had taken from the Phillistines (1Sam.30:16). A time to mourn, and a time to dance (Eccl.3:4). Let them praise His name in dance (Psa.149:3). As Moses drew near the camp, he saw the calf and the dancing (Ex.32:19). The young women shall make merry and dance (Jer.31:13).

New Testament: Surprisingly, this term takes on a minor and even peripheral role in the New Testament. Unlike the leaping and skipping deeply ingrained in Old Testament worship, this term conveys the mere act of dancing in joyous and festive occasions. In parables, this term is found in children’s games and in celebrating the return of the prodigal son. In addition, at a birthday celebration, Salome dances before King Herod. As she charms King Herod, she gets King Herod to cut off John the Baptist’s head.

Scripture:

“To what shall I compare this generation?  It is like children who sit in marketplaces and call to one another. ‘We play the flute for you, but you did not dance, we sang a dirge, but you do not mourn’”. Mt. 11:16-17

The dancing may allude to the wedding feasts that Jesus invites us to.  The dirge may allude to the death of John the Baptist. Scholars claim that this generation may refer the Jews and current generation who opposed the Christian following.

“But at a birthday celebration for Herod, Salome, the daughter of Herodias, performed a dance before the guests and delighted Herod.” Mt.14:6

Salome charms King Herod. King Herod accepts her request to have John the Baptist beheaded.

“Now the older son had been out in the field and, on his way back, as he neared the house, he heard the sound of music and dancing.” Lk.15:25

The father welcomed back his lost younger son. The father celebrated this event with a feast. This parable images the Father’s everlasting mercy.

Conclusion:

Orchestra, orchestrate, orchestral, dance

The Greek stage played a very important role in the development of the orchestra. I did not realize that the orchestra was originally the space between the stage and the seats. Small groups of musicians performed in this area. So it is not surprising that this would lead to the development of the modern orchestra. It was also interesting to note that the person who directed the choros is the choreographer.

The Illiad Book 18 (760-710 B.C.) makes the first reference to a physical stage and chorus of dancers. Aesop’s Fables makes reference to this term as like children at play.

I was already aware of King David’s leaping before the Ark of the Covenant. But, I did not realize that dancing (leaping) is fully ingrained with Old Testament worship. I was also very surprised by the many references to dancing or leaping. It was very interesting to see that scripture gives a command to dance and indicates a time to dance. This type of worship most likely involved leaping and twirling, rather than the modern understanding of dancing.

It was very interesting to discover that dancing plays a very minor and peripheral role in the New Testament. In these few examples, dancing is involved with children’s games or celebrations, not so much with spirituality. However, elsewhere in the New Testament, the leaping of the infant John draws parallels with King David before the Ark of the Covenant. King David and John leap in the presence of the Spirit.

In contrast to King David’s leaping, Salome performs an exotic and elaborate dance. This type of dance was derived more from the Hellenistic traditions.

[Greek] σπεκουλάτωρ (spekoulatōr), [Latin] speculator; scout, executioner, military scout, guard, body guard, attendant, investigator, courier, messenger, soldier, watcher, spy, lookout officer, imperial guard; Mk.6:27

In return for representing the interests of the Roman Empire, King Herod was provided with a contingent of Roman soldiers

Background Information:

Peter and Mark: Historical and scriptural evidence indicates that Peter and Mark worked together in ministry. Biblical scholars believe that 1 Peter was written before 62-64 AD. Peter and Mark were both in Rome at this time. Peter was eventually martyred around 64 AD by the Emperor Nero. In 1 Pet.5:13 Peter lovingly refers to Mark as his son. Essentially, Mark was a disciple, apprentice, interpreter, and scribe for Peter. Later, Mark’s gospel provides an accurate and faithful record of Peter’s teachings.

Mark’s Gospel: Mark wrote his gospel primarily to the Roman and Gentile audience. Mark was very familiar with the Roman culture. Written around 70 AD, this gospel provides a blunt and realistic picture that Christians may face struggles and persecution. Mark essentially says, “Look, folks, it’s not going to be easy being a Christian.” There are frequent references to Latinisms, which are Greek spellings of Latin words. The Latin speculator comes from the Greek spekoulator.

Roman Empire: King Herod was a Roman-appointed king of Judea. He was expected to support the interests of his Roman patrons. In return, he received a contingent of 2000 soldiers, including a personal military guard. This contingent was based on the model of the Pretorian Guard, formed of elite soldiers in Italy. This guard customarily surrounded Herod during public functions (ceremonies, public events, and banquets). There was an ever-constant tension between the Roman Empire and the growing Christian sect.

Roman guard: In addition to guarding King Herod, the soldiers took on several functions and roles: scout, watchman, guard, attendant, courier, spy, and executioner. Herod had already arrested John the Baptist and put him in prison. Herod still feared John, despite his being in prison. Salome, Herodias’s daughter, danced for Herod. In return, Herod granted her anything she asked. Salome asked for John’s head on a platter. Because he did not want to break his promise to her, Herod later ordered his guard to kill (behead) John.

Scripture:

“So he promptly dispatched an executioner with orders to bring back his head. The soldier went off and beheaded him in prison.” Mk. 6:27

The Roman guards, in addition to guarding King Herod, were expected to perform various activities such as an executioner.

Conclusion:

Speculator, speculation, speculate

Although indirectly related to this term, the background of Peter and Mark provides an important insight into their understanding of Roman culture. Some non-Catholics speculate that Peter never was in Rome, in the first place. In 1 Pet. 5:13, Peter makes reference to ‘the chosen one at Babylon’. This phrase refers to the Christian community in Rome. Peter couldn’t very well say, ‘Here I am with the Christians in Rome.’ Babylon seems to be an appropriate term for Rome! Because of the persecution of these Christians in Rome, Peter had to use code words. Not surprisingly, Peter was eventually martyred in Rome. This also provides the background and context for Mark’s gospel.

Mark was writing to the Christians who were facing persecution and struggles. I think Mark was able to show a unique insight into Herod’s motives. As one already familiar with Roman culture and society, Mark understood Herod’s complicated position as a Roman appointed king who needed to keep the peace with the Christians in Judea. Mark mentions that Herod was distressed about keeping his word to his guests. Perhaps Herod’s need to save political “face” was stronger than his fear of John the Baptist.

It is also interesting to note that these early military guards performed a vast array of functions, similar to today’s military services and armed forces. Unfortunately, sometimes this includes killing and executing, depending on one’s geography or ideology in the world today. Now this term primarily takes on a financial sense (finance, stocks, derivatives, bonds, and commodities). This sense first appears in 1778. It is interesting to note how the term’s meaning has changed over time. This meaning changes over time from a strict observer to one who contemplates what they observe to one who contemplates and acts on what they observe. Today this could be a Navy Seal or a Wall Street financial analyst.

[Greek] μορφόω (morphoō), [Latin] formare, [German] ordnen: to form, to be formed, to fashion, to change one’s appearance, to be conformed, to be like Christ, to shape: Gal.4:19

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: Essentially, this term means to form or to fashion. This term takes on a middle voice, whereby the subject is passive. This idea pertains to the classical Greek notion of giving an outward expression of one’s inner character. In addition, inanimate materials can be shaped or formed by an artist. Material is formed or fashioned by the sculptor. A painting is fashioned by the artist into an image.

New Testament: Interestingly, this term is not found in the Old Testament. This term is only found once in the book of Galatians. Paul, concerned for Galatians’ welfare, is worried that the Galatians will revert to their former ways. Paul is presented as a mother who cares for her children. Like an expectant mother experiencing labor pains, Paul worries (groans) about when Christ will be formed in the Galatians. Paul’s goal is for Christ to be “fashioned” in the Galatians.

Scripture:

“My children, for whom I am again in labor until Christ be formed in you!” Gal.4:19

Paul is hoping that Christ will be formed in each Galatian.

Conclusion:

Morph, transform, metamorphosis, form, order

I still think that the Greek classical notion of an outward expression revealing one’s inner character still holds true today. This shows one’s true nature. This becomes a precursor to what it means to be fashioned or formed. I thought it was interesting that this term was not found in the Old Testament culture. This makes sense in that God was viewed in a more distant, sometimes fearful manner. The notion of an intimate relationship with God in the Old Testament culture was nearly unheard of. This only occurs later with Jesus in the New Testament.

In addition to being presented as a spiritual father, Paul experiences “labor” as a spiritual mother for the Galatians. Not surprisingly, Christ being formed in oneself also evokes images of a baby in the womb, needing nourishment and attention. Paul also is acting like a concerned father who is concerned for his children’s spiritual growth. This reminds me of the many parents, worrying about their kids’ faith, dropping off their kids for RE classes. So, I guess it is not surprising that religious education is also called religious formation.

[Greek] φεύγω (pheugō), [Latin] fugere, [Latin] recedere, [Latin] transire, [Latin] profugere, [French] refugier, [German] fliehen: to flee, to escape, to run away, to shun, to seek safety, to vanish, to avoid, to seek flight, be a fugitive; Mt.24:16, Heb.12:25, Heb.11:34, Rev.16:20, 1Cor.6:15, 2Tim. 2:22, Rev.12:13, 1Cor.13:8

The galley slave Ben Hur, through an act of bravery, gains his freedom

Background Information:

Secular Greek: This term primarily takes on the sense of fleeing (escaping) from someone or something dangerous, and from the authorities. Such examples may include running from wild animals, poisonous snakes, deadly plagues, or attacking enemies. The object of danger may also be presented in literal (slavery) or metaphorical (evil) forms.

Runaway slaves: This example is perhaps best illustrated by the runaway Greek (or Roman) slave escaping from his keeper (authorities). There are actual historical records showing slave-owners branding a tattoo over the slave’s forehead. In the Greek culture, slaves would have such a tattoo saying, “katekhe me, phuego”, meaning “Stop me, I am a runaway slave.” This method was used to ensure the escaped slave’s return. In the famous movie, the galley slave Ben-Hur, through an act of bravery, escapes from his bondage and regains his freedom, becoming a champion charioteer.

Old Testament: This term is represented by 8 different Hebrew roots, meaning: flee, escape, depart, take flight, hasten, and go through. Interestingly, this term does involve a legal or criminal context, but rather a moral context. A Hebrew idiom, “departing unto their tents” refer to separation of the 10 tribes of Israel. A contemptuous insult or treacherous attack will drive away any friend (Sir.22:22). Flee from sin as a serpent (Sir.21:2). The wicked flee but none follow (Prov.28:1). The wind hurls itself at Job and sweeps him from his place (Job.27).

New Testament: This term takes on the sense of fleeing, escaping, and avoiding. Revelations provides another dimension in the sense of disappearing or becoming invisible. This term, often presented in the present tense, indicates the continual need of action. Quite often, the objects to be avoided are presented as metaphors and tangible realities. Such examples include temptation, immorality, and vices.

Scripture:

“Then those in Judea must flee to the mountains.” Mt.24:16

This involves physically leaving a location in response to a crisis.

“See that you do not reject the one who speaks. For if they did not escape when they refused the one who warned them on earth, how much more in our case if we turn away the one who warns from heaven.” Heb.12:25

In this context, there is not really much difference between rejecting and escaping. Both lead to dire consequences. Rejecting the voice of Christ will lead to more serious consequences.

“So turn from youthful desires and pursue righteousness, faith, love, and peace, along with those who call on the Lord with purity and heart.” 2 Tim. 2:22

These youthful desires may involve material desires, carnal desires, selfish desires, vices, and immorality.

“For the love of money is the root of all evils, and some people in their desire for it have strayed from the faith and have pierced themselves with many pains. But you, man of God, avoid all this. Instead, pursue righteousness, devotion, faith, love, patience, and gentleness.” 1Tim.6:10-11

Paul tell is Timothy, a minister,  to avoid the pursuit of riches. This idea strays from the gospel message of Jesus.

Conclusion:

Fugitive, refuge, transit,  refugee, flee, recede

It was interesting to note, that for such a cosmopolitan Greco-Roman culture, this term essentially referred to the simple notion of escaping. This immediately comes to mind past epic movies. Perhaps it’s Charlton Heston as Ben Hur or Kirk Douglas as Spartacus.

I was surprised that the Old Testament culture did not use this term in the criminal or legal sense, but primarily in the moral sense.  Perhaps, this was due to its simpler culture, relying on God.

This moral sense continues in the New Testament culture, where one is warned about being lead into temptation. I thought it was very telling that Paul needed to warn Timothy, a leader in ministry, about the allure of wealth. In as sense, Jesus is telling Timothy to “run away” from this temptation! Yet, in our current culture, there are some preachers and ministers who preach the “wealth and prosperity gospel message.” Therefore, many people in the pews now equate prosperity with “financial blessings.” I do not think Jesus was talking about financial “blessings!” I think this detracts from Jesus’ message of accumulating spiritual treasures.

[Greek] πλάσσω (plassō), [Latin] formare, [German] bilden: to form, to mold, to fabricate, to be created, to be molded, to be fabricated, plastic; 1Tim.2:13, Rom.9:20

Greek origin myth: Pandora opening the box

Background Information:

Greek mythology: Since little was understood about how the world works, origin myths were developed to explain such phenomena. A famous example of such a myth involved Pandora’s Jar. Out of vengeance toward man, Zeus ordered Hephaestus, the Greek god of blacksmiths and sculptors, to create Pandora. Pandora was created out of earth and water. Pandora was the first woman on earth. Pandora was given a jar. This jar contained all the evils in the world. Pandora was instructed never to open this jar. However, out of curiosity, Pandora opens up this jar. Well, you know the rest of the story.

Old Testament: This term presents God as the Creator who gives shape and form. God formed the earth and man. God molds and shapes the guidance, liberation, and punishment for man. Greek Hellenism presents man living on two levels, that of body and that of soul. In contrast, God forms man, integrated with body and soul. In some examples, even God Himself is sometimes often described as with human characteristics. Then the Lord God formed the man out of the dust of the ground and blew into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being (Gen.2:7). The One who fashioned the hearts of all of them knows all their works (Psa.33:15). Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, before you were born I dedicated you, a prophet to the nations I appointed you (Jer.1:5). Take care! I am fashioning evil against you and making a plan. Return, each of you, from his evil way; reform you ways and your deeds (Jer.18:11).

New Testament: This term is primarily used in the sense of to make or to mold. God is likened as a potter who molds and shapes His creation, man. This becomes a reminder of God’s power over creation. This term also indicates that Adam was first formed. This belief system, the older ranking first, contributes to the cultural values of the secondary status of women in society. Eve, like other women, takes on a secondary social status subservient to men. For the most part, a patriarchal system existed at this time. This belief systems was taken for granted in Hellenism and Judaism. However, this idea is eventually later abandoned in practice in the New Testament.

Scripture:

“For Adam was formed first, then Eve.” 1 Tim.2:13

Women historically had taken on a secondary status in patriarchal societies. For better or not, this scripture passage reinforced this idea. These values were present in the Greco-Roman, Hellenistic, and Jewish cultures. This idea starts to change in the New Testament era.

“But who indeed are you, a human being, to talk back to God? Will what is made say to its maker, ‘Why have you created me so?’” Rom.9:20

This is a reminder of God’s majesty and sovereignty. Man is dependent on God.

Conclusion:

Plastic, plasm, plasma, plaster, form, format, build

Pandora’s Jar? Don’t you mean Pandora’s Box! Yes. Actually later translations changed this from a jar to a box. As everyone knows, opening up Pandora’s Box means unleashing something potentially dangerous. It is interesting to note that there is a commonality between Eve and Pandora. Both were created from the earth. Both made a bad decision.

It becomes readily apparent that Genesis becomes the origin (pardon the pun!) for God creating and breathing life into Adam and Eve. God is the potter. We are his pottery. God already knows are our heart, path, and destiny.

It is also interesting to note that the New Testament culture begins to tear down that notion of the secondariness (second-class nature)  of women. Women play a more prominent role in this still patriarchal society (Elizabeth, Mary, Mary Magdalene, Mary and Martha, etc.). In a reversal of the Genesis story,  Mary (New Eve) first comes into the picture as the pure vessel, then Jesus (New Adam) follows. Jesus couldn’t find a better vessel to be born into! God couldn’t have created and formed a better redemption story!

‎[Greek] χαίρω (chairō), [Latin] habere (havere), [Latin] guadere, [Latin] salus, [French] avoir, [German] heil, [German] gesundheit: to rejoice, to be happy, to be well-off, to be glad, to hail, to give a greeting, to favor, to say hello; 77 scriptures

Ave (Have) means “Hail!”: a first century welcome mat in front of a house in Pompeii

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term means to rejoice, to be merry, and to greet.

1. In Classical Greek the expression “go and rejoice” means to wish someone well upon his departure.
2. This action expresses a feeling of gratitude to others. This reciprocal relationship can occur between man and with the gods. Men show gratitude to the gods for the good things (grace and favor) they have received.
3. In other words, one who receives charis (favor), will then express charis (favor) toward others. This expression of favor toward others becomes a common mode of greeting among Greeks.

Old Testament: This term means to rejoice, to be glad, and to take pleasure.

1. This term, linked to 10 related Hebrew terms, takes on over 80 many nuanced meanings.
2. One common meaning refers to “shalom”, meaning to be happy.
3. Interestingly, the paradoxical thought of rejoicing (joy) in suffering was first developed in Judaism (2 Macc.6:30).
4. This theme again occurs in 1 Pet. and James in the New Testament.

New Testament:

Greeting others:

1. The classical Greek method of greeting others is found in several situations in the New Testament.
2. This is illustrated by an expression of good wishes upon encountering that person.
3. Christianity adds elements of peace, love and mercy in this greeting. The angel Gabriel’s encounter with Mary adds another dimension to this context.
4. Instead of calling Mary by her name, Gabriel calls her “full of grace.” The angel essentially gives a new name (title) for Mary.
5. Luke uses the Greek kecharitomene (highly favored) for Mary, which is the perfect passive participle of charitoo (to endow with grace). This indicates a continual and perfect endowing of grace.
6. When God gives new names (titles) to someone, it means that God has important plans for you. Abram ==> Abraham, Sarai ==> Sarah, Jacob ==> Israel, and Simon ==> Peter are other such examples.

Paul’s letters:

1. Rejoicing is involved with his work as an apostle.
2. This term is found as a fruit of the Holy Spirit, in fellowship, in the kingdom of God, and in suffering.
3. Joy is an essential factor in the relation between apostle and community. Rejoicing is found both in the present and in eschatological sense.
4. The paradox of joy in suffering comes from the antagonism and persecution the Christians face in the world.

James and 1 Peter:  James 1:2, in the tradition of Jewish Wisdom, was written to the twelve tribes in the Diaspora. This scripture passage considers it a joy when one encounters various trials. Unjust suffering even becomes a grace and a blessing. The linking of rejoicing and suffering becomes an established tradition in the New Testament era, in light of the sufferings of Jesus.

John’s Gospel: The time of rejoicing is present with Jesus. Rejoicing and fulfillment are related to the person of Jesus. Throughout his gospel, John points to the many examples of rejoicing. Rejoicing cannot be lost and obtains the ultimate victory despite the hatred of the world.

Scripture:

 Lk.1:28: “And coming to Mary, the angel Gabriel said, ‘Hail, favored one! The Lord is with you.’” (God gives Mary a new name (title). The angel greets Mary with good news that God has important plans for her. This event is much more than a greeting.)

Jas.1:2: “Consider it all joy, my brothers, when you encounter various trials.” (This scripture passage relates the paradoxical idea that joy (rejoicing) can be found in suffering. Blessings somehow will come to that person.)

Etymology: The Latin verb habere (havere or avere) means to hold, to have, to consider, and to regard. The Latin verb avere, focusing  on performance, means to be well or to fare well. The related Latin verb salvere, focusing on health, means to be in good health. Salve, similar to ave, was considered a commoner’s greeting. The related French greeting salut means hi. From this we get salute and salutations.

Gaudete Sunday: This is the third Sunday in Advent. The Latin word gaudete means rejoice. The priests and deacons were rose vestments.

Conclusion:

Charism, charisma, Ave, Gaudete, have, habitation, habit, salvation, salutation, gesundheit, heil, avoir

“Ave” was a common Roman military greeting and salute. One can easily imagine soldiers coming to attention saying, “Ave, Proconsol!” or “Ave, Caesar!”

The Latin form of Eve is Eva. Perhaps, it’s not a coincidence that Ave is Eva spelled backwards. Paraphrasing St. Irenaeus, Mary’s obedience unties the knot of Eve’s disobedience. So, in a sense, Mary also welcomed the Holy Spirit. It is significant to note that the perfection of grace bestowed on Mary comes not from just personal opinions but from the original Greek scripture itself.

Perhaps not all of us are familiar with James 1:2. For many this scripture passage can be very difficult to comprehend (being joyful while suffering?).

I can also relate to this too. (Lord, why do I have to keep going through these struggles!!!!) This just doesn’t make sense! Maybe James 1:2 can help shed some light on those times when bad things happen to good people.

It is a mystery why would God would allow these things to happen to us. Maybe these could be blessings in disguise. Perhaps God may be calling you to be a saint. But often our reply is, “But I don’t want be a saint!”

The fruits of unjust suffering can potentially lead to sainthood. From these difficult times and events, we see how many people have helped others in need. Perhaps, it is fitting that we celebrate Gaudete (Rejoice) Sunday on the third Sunday of Advent.

Semper Gaudete! (Always rejoice!)

Salve! (be in good health!)

Gesundheit! (good health!)

[Greek] φήμη (phēmē), [Latin] fama: saying, report, news, rumor, fame, word, common report, divine utterance, reputation, gossip, opinion; Mt.9:26, Lk.4:14

Background Information:

Greco-Roman mythology: Pheme was the goddess of fame and gossip. Pheme was said to have pried into the affairs of the gods and mortals. She was described as one who initiates and furthers communication. Pheme would start to whisper about others until everyone knew about it. The people she favored were notable and renowned. Those who defied her were scorned and plagued with rumors. Her divine utterance (with a horn) cannot be stopped. The related Roman goddess was named Fama. Aischines’ Timarchus states “But concerning the life and deeds of me, an incontrovertible rumor spreads of its own accord throughout the city, and brings private deeds to the attention of all, and often even prophecies what is going to happen.” (346 B.C)

Old Testament: Isa.61:1-2 makes reference to a messiah who has been filled by the Spirit of the Lord God. This scriptural passage, having important Christological and doctrinal implications, encapsulates the Jewish expectation of the New Messiah would bring good news to the afflicted, brokenhearted, captive, and mournful Israelites. In Luke 4:18, Luke references Isa.61:1-2 as Jesus reads from Isaiah’s scrolls in the synagogue. As a result, Jesus claims that scripture is fulfilled upon hearing of this scripture. “The Spirit of the Lord God is upon me, because the Lord has anointed me; He has sent me to bring good news to the afflicted, to bind up the brokenhearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives, release the prisoners. To announce a year of favor from the Lord and a day of vindication by our Go; to comfort all who mourn.” Isa.61:1-2

New Testament: This term appears twice, indicating a report, news, word, or information. Although these situations differ, news (word) of Jesus’ actions had ultimately spread throughout the land. Jesus healed the two blind men. After failing to heed Jesus’ wishes to keep this event quiet, these men went out and spread the word about what happened. News of Jesus’ actions (teaching and miracles), guided by the Holy Spirit, spread throughout the whole region. In addition, Jesus reveals that prophecy has been fulfilled upon His reading of the Old Testament scripture of Isa.61:1-2.

Scripture:

“Jesus returned to Galilee in the power of the Holy Spirit, and the news of Him spread throughout the whole region.” Lk.4:14

Jesus’ actions and deeds were being known throughout the whole region in part through His appeal to the lowly and simple people. This provides an indication that Luke was writing to this audience.

“And news of this spread throughout that land.” Mt. 9:26

The crowd was amazed that Jesus could bring this dead girl back to life. Word of this news spread all over the land.

Conclusion:

Blasphemy, blaspheme, euphemism, fame, infamy

It is interesting to note that the Greco-Roman culture also dealt with rumors, gossip, fame, and infamy. This must have been a very big deal back then, even to have a goddess of fame and gossip.  I can only imagine that the wealthy and powerful would wield power in releasing information to help or hurt others. Let’s not forget all of those Greek and Roman government officials seeking fame and fortune. (We could also say the same with our current culture). Then there were emperors who thought they were gods!

Rather than providing a good (eu-) sounding meaning (euphemism) for death (passing away), Jesus died an excruciating death on the cross.

Essentially, the Hebrews (Israelites) were seeking the good news of their promised Messiah. Later, Jesus claims that prophecy has been fulfilled in that He brings good news to all. It also interesting to see how blasphemy can be tied to scandal. One can become scandalized if one is offended by others’ “unsuitable”  beliefs. The Jews were scandalized that Jesus would claim to be God. Because of this blasphemy, Jesus is put on the cross.

Recently, in the secular world, many feel scandalized by opposing ideas and thoughts. This is occurring on college campuses, where many students become offended by opposing ideas and speech. It seems people are finding more and more things to be offended about. One becomes fearful of upsetting or offending another one’s cultural sensitivities when putting on a cultural or social event. Even speaking engagements on campus are being disrupted and cancelled by those who oppose their viewpoints.  And I thought colleges were places for the free exchange of ideas.

[Greek] ὄψις (opsis), [Latin] faciem: appearance, vision, optics, countenance, face, look, sight, act of seeing, view, aspect, that which is visible; Jn.11:44, Rev.1:16, Jn.7:24

Elements of opsis: (costumes and masks) were designed to evoke an emotional response from the audience

Background Information:

Greek theater: This Greek term is appropriately tied to the theater. The theater (theatron) is a place of seeing. Opsis pertains to the visual elements of a theatrical production. Such elements, including masks, scenery, costumes, props, and decorations, are intended to evoke emotional responses from the audience. The dramatic tragedies and comedies performed on the stage typically evoke such emotional responses. Plato, whose philosophy of ideas is an extended meditation of sight, believed opsis was an important component of the theater. This idea begins the later study of studying the optics for a target audience.

Old Testament: This term takes on a variety of meanings and uses. Out of the ground, the Lord God made grow every tree that was delightful to look at and good for food (Gen.2:9). Joseph was strikingly handsome in countenance and body (Gen.39:6). The lampstand was made according to the patter which the Lord had shown Moses (Num.8:4). Face to face I speak to him (Moses) (Num.12:8). I saw there the glory of God (Ezek.8:4). God knows well the moment you ate of the apple (Gen.3:15). Moses stands on the rock in Horeb in the presence of the elders of Israel (Ex.17:6).

New Testament: On the other hand, this term, found quite infrequently in the New Testament, refers to faces and physical appearances. Lazarus’ wrapped face appears in John’s gospel. Jesus’ shining face appears in Revelation. In a more nuanced way, Jesus makes references to first impressions and appearances. Interestingly, this term provides the basis for describing the common elements of the synoptic gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke.

Scripture:

“Lazarus came out, tied hand and foot with burial bands, and his face was wrapped in a cloth.” Jn.11:4

It was the customary burial practice to wrap the dead in a burial cloth. Jesus then restores Lazarus back to life.

“His face shone like the sun at its brightest.” Rev.1:16

Jesus is shown in His glory as His face shines like the sun.

“Stop judging by appearances, but judge justly.” Jn.7:24

The Jews were astonished by how Jesus, who did not receive formal training from the rabbis, was able to teach in the temple. Jesus claimed His authority come the Father. The Jews presumed that Jesus was possessed.

Synoptic gospels: The term synoptic derives from syn- (together) and opsis (view). Essentially, these three gospels take a common view toward the stories, teachings, and parables of Jesus. These gospels give an account of these events from the same point of view. In contrast, the gospel of John speaks of Jesus divine nature and contains no parables.

Conclusion:

Optic, synoptic, synopsis autopsy, face

As you already know, optics technically deals with light properties and diffraction. However, this term can have many meanings and uses. In the early Greco-Roman era, this term is easily identified with the stage. Even now, we continue to “see” the stage and theaters as places of spectacle.

It is interesting to see how this term is used in such various ways at a given time in history. The Old Testament uses this term in a multitude of ways. For example, this term “sheds some light” on the ways God communicates with man throughout the Old Testament. However, in the New Testament, this term is very narrowly used. We all have heard of the synoptic gospels. We can identify what they are. But I never really knew what this term actually meant. These three gospels basically have a common view (optics) of Jesus.

An autopsy is a thorough medical examination of a body, using one’s own eyes. In recent years optics has become a very important subject matter in politics. Optics is the study of how the audience (outsiders) perceive an issue. Many political consultants and advisors have made a career of this profession. I think you can see how this situation could play out.  The consultant says to the congressmen, “Sir, the optics of this situation does not look good to the voters. You need make a statement categorically denying this.”

[Greek] ἐμπορεύομαι (emporeuomai), [Latin] mercare, [Latin] negotiare: to exploit, to engage in business, to merchandize, to buy and sell, to fabricate, to cheat; Jas.4:13, 2 Pet.2:3

The agora becomes the cultural and commercial center in the Greco-Roman world

Background Information:

Greco-Roman agora: The agora was a central public space where the political, commercial, artistic, and spiritual life of the community took place. This is where the emporos (one on a journey) would sell his wares, products, and services to the customers. These traders and merchants would take their emporium (business) from one city to the next. In addition, philosophers and artisans would gather together in order to exchange ideas. The Romans later adapted this public space for non-commercial activities (in the Forum). These activities involved political debates, discussions, spiritual activities, and govt. and administrative duties.

Jewish agora: The synagogues served as important public assembly areas for the Jews. During the Diaspora, the Jews also associated in the agora throughout the cities of the Greek world. Synagogues were also established in various agoras. So, it is not surprising that Jewish merchants would eventually sell their wares in or near the Temple grounds. It is here that Jesus overturns the Jewish merchants’ tables. Jesus condemns these merchants for desecrating the Temple grounds.

New Testament: This term is primarily used in the sense of being in business and exploiting others. It is interesting to note that there is sometimes a common thread between false teachers and unscrupulous merchants: cheating or exploiting. In fact, Jesus contends with both adversaries. Peter makes mention of how past false teachers were punished and condemned by God. The fallen angels were condemned to hell. The godless generation of Noah was condemned with floods. The immoral cities of Sodom and Gamorrah were reduced to ashes.

Scripture:

“In their greed they will exploit you with fabrications, but from old their condemnation has not been idle and their destruction does not sleep.” 2 Pet.2:3

The false teachers will take advantage and exploit those Christian who are uncertain in their faith.  Peter mentions that these false teachers follow the patterns of false prophets in the Old Testament.

“Come now, you who say, ‘Today or tomorrow we shall go into such a town, spend a year there doing business, and make a profit’” Jam.4:13

James speaks of the uncertainty of life. This scripture provides evidence of travelling merchants in ancient times.

Conclusion:

Emporium, merchandise, merchant, negotiate, negotiation

The basic meaning of this term means to go on a passage (pore) or journey. The agora was the open public arena in the town where one could make a living. The merchant would either sell a product or provide a service. Paul offered his services as a tentmaker in the agora, as a means to support his ministry. Since there were not any existing office buildings, the agora was the logical place to conduct business (buying and selling).

The synagogue essentially becomes the agora for the Jews. Aside from the sacrilegious consequences of conducting business in a place of worship, sometimes the Jews did conduct business and commerce in the synagogue. This can help explain why Jesus gets upset by this activity.

It is also interesting to note that the false teachers and unscrupulous merchants express the same characteristics of exploiting and deceiving their target audience (customers or believers). They attempt to “sell them a bill of goods” in order to put one over them. So, in a sense, some things haven’t changed today. We have recently seen some characters who have taken advantage of victims from the hurricanes and floods.

[Greek] σχολάζω (scholazō), [Latin] vacantem, [Latin] revertere: to be at leisure, to devote oneself to, to have leisure, to take a holiday, to be vacant (of a house), to give oneself to prayer, to cease from labor, to be free from labor, to be unoccupied, to stand empty, to give time; 1Cor.7:5, Mt.12:44, Lk. 11:25

In Ephesus, Paul begins teaching in Tyrannus Hall (Acts.19:8-10)

Background Information:

Greek Hellenism: This term means to have leisure, to learn, or to have spare time. Greek Hellenism was thought to have begun around 700 B.C. Reading and writing were considered very necessary cultural values and criteria needed for participating in the political democracy (government). Greek education was primarily available to the wealthy and privileged citizens in society. This spare time was devoted to attaining a well-rounded education in various disciplines (sciences, arts, and sports). This learning provided the basis for the modern concepts of education (elementary, secondary, and higher education).

Old Testament: Interestingly, there is no corresponding term for the Greek scholazo in the Hebrew language. In fact, the ideas of leisure and learning take on completely different meanings in the Old Testament culture. Leisure is negatively equated with idleness. Learning, which applies to all people, should be devoted to learning the Law. Teaching was highly valued in communicating the Law’s teachings. The Hebrew sense of being empty involved being poor, being diminished, being lacking, and being vain.

Biblical scholar Marvin Wilson: “The Greeks learned in order to comprehend, while the Hebrews learned in order to revere” This statement briefly summarized who the Greeks and Hebrews viewed learning.

New Testament: This term is primarily used in the sense of giving time (devoting to) and being empty. Paul is exhorting the married people in Corinth to make time for prayer in exercising self-control. Scripture makes mention of an empty or vacant home. This may also imply that the residents are away pursuing some leisurely activity. Interestingly, the Greek term schole refers to a place where people spent their leisure time in a lecture or discussion.

Schole: For three months Paul debated theological issues in the synagogue in Ephesus. The Jewish opposition forced Paul and his disciples out of the synagogue. Paul rented a lecture hall from Tyrannus, a fellow Christian follower and school teacher. The workers took a break (leisure time) during the hot hours of the afternoon. Paul taught in the hall of Tyrannus from 10:00am to 4:00pm. Work, starting in the early morning, was usually completed by noon. Acts. 19:8-10 makes reference to these events in scripture.

Scripture:

“Do not deprive each other, except perhaps by mutual consent for a time, to be free for prayer, but then return to one another, so that Satan may not tempt you through your lack of self-control.” 1 Cor.7:4
Paul challenges the married people in Corinth to make time for prayer in order to remain faithful and chaste in the marriage relationships.

“Then it says, ‘I will return to my home from which I came. But upon returning, it finds it empty, swept clean, and put in order.” Mt.12:44

This refers to an empty home. In an indirect way, this may refer to people out about pursing a leisure activity

Conclusion:

Scholar, scholarly, school, scholastic, vacant, revert

Although considered an enlightened culture, the Greeks were not able to provide the pursuit of learning and education available for everyone. Evidently, this society consisted of “haves” and “have- nots”. Learning is first associated with leisure. We all have much to be thankful for the Greeks’ contribution toward learning.

It was interesting to discover that the Old Testament had a completely different attitude toward leisure and free time. Perhaps, a simpler rural lifestyle and work ethic contributed to everyone learning basic occupations and interests. Any other free time was devoted to the scriptures (Old Testament) and the Law. Even the Hebrew notion of emptiness has a negative sense. These qualities include idleness, vanity, worthlessness, diminishment, and lacking.

It is also quite interesting how leisure became tied to education. However, it seems that this is not the case in recent times. Education, often hectic, stressful, and time-consuming, has become far more important than just a leisurely pursuit. And this is not just an idle thought!

[Greek] ὁρίζω (horizō), [Latin] definitum, [Latin] constitutus, [Latin] statuit: to mark off by boundaries, to determine, to appoint, to decree, to declare, to ordain, to decide, to define, to designate, to bound, to limit; Lk.22:22, Act.2:23, Act.10:42, Act.17:26, Rom. 1:4, Heb.4:7

Background information:

Secular Greek: Interestingly, this term takes on many nuanced meanings. This includes marking, limiting, ordaining fixing, appointing, defining, determining, or marking out. He marked out the land around the altar (Herodotus 3.142). I have limited my share to one-third of their property (Lysias 17.6). Then the Dephian lords decided that my mistress should die, by being cast from the rock (Euripides, Ion 1222). That there may be no question raised about my obedience, please fix the age limit below which is to be accounted young (Xenophon). Shall we therefore rightly define the pious man as on who knows what is lawful concerning the gods? (Xenophon). I date his hostility from the very day when he wiped out the Phocians (Demosthenes 9.19).

Old Testament: This term is used in a much more limited sense in primarily defining the borders and occupation of Israel. This is what Moses gave to the tribes of the Gadites and their clans…in the Jordan valley: Beth-haram, Beth-nimrah, Succoth, Zaphon (Jos.13:24-27). The western boundary was the Great Sea and its coast (Jos.15:12). The Jordan bounded it on the east (Jos. 18:20).

New Testament: This takes on the sense of to decide or to appoint. Such examples primarily define the Christological nature of Jesus. Jesus’ divine appointment is tied to His eternal (boundless) nature. They describe the person and work of Jesus Christ. The other example illustrates one’s capacity share one’s gifts. One’s limits (boundaries) are defined by his nature and gifts.

Scripture:

“So the disciples determined that, according to ability, each should send relief to the brothers who lived in Judea.” Act. 11:29

The scripture passage relates to an individual’s capacities (or limitations) to provide relief.  Luke is stressing the importance of providing charity.

“This man, delivered up by the set plan and foreknowledge of God, you killed, using lawless man to crucify Him.” Act. 2:23

God, as part of His Divine Providence, appointed Jesus to bring redemption to His people.

“He commissioned us to preach to the people and testify that He is the one appointed by God as judge of the living and the dead.” Act. 10:42

It was according to the will of God that Jesus would provide this judgment to all. This apostolic preaching to the Jews appeals to their Messianic hope. The apostolic preaching to the Gentiles stressed the coming divine judgment.

“Jesus, established as Son of God in power according to the spirit of holiness through resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ our Lord.” Rom.1:4

Jesus Christ is able to communicate the Spirit to those who believe in Him. This is a divine declaration and divine appointment.

Conclusion:

Horizon, horizontal, definite, constitute, statute

It was interesting to see the many nuanced senses of this term in the secular Greek, ranging from maps to proclamations. Then, at the other extreme, the Old Testament presents this term only in terms of geographical physical boundaries. The New Testament goes into another direction, focusing on the Christological nature and identity of Jesus. This is a quite stark difference between the Old Testament and New Testament.

When I think of a horizon, I immediately think of boundaries. In a sense, this term does involve boundaries. However, the New Testament shows that Jesus is boundless in His divine nature.  He even knows what is in “our hearts”. Also, our potential generosity is often determined, defined, and limited by our resources (time, treasure and talent).

Horizontal actually means parallel to the horizon. For those of you who want to know what the technical definition of a horizon, here it is!  A horizon is the apparent line that separates the earth from the sky. I think I can “proclaim” to all the ends of the earth (horizon) in saying, “What a lame definition!” But as we move forward in our journey in life, we still must be thankful for our blessings.

‎[Greek] ζηλόω (zēloō), [Latin] aemulantes, [Latin] zelantes: to be jealous, to desire earnestly, to eagerly seek, to have a feeling against, to be zealous, to burn with desire, to be envious, to strive after, to exert oneself earnestly, to zealously seek, to be moved with jealousy, to have a zeal for; Act. 1:13, Lk. 6:15, Lk.17:5, Act.5:17, Act.13:45, Gal.1:14, Php.3:6, 1 Tim.2:14, 1 Pet.3:13, 1 Cor.12:31, 1 Cor.14:1, 1 Cor.14:12, 1 Cor.14:39, 1 Cor.13:4, Jas.4:2, Heb.10:27, Gal. 4:17, Act.7:9, Act.17:5

The Zealots were a group of political adversaries to Roman rule in Judea in 66-75 A.D.

Background Information:

Secular Greek: This term is most commonly used in the sense of to admire, to commend someone, and to commemorate by tragic dramatists (actors). This personal emotion of being stirred (enthusiastic) is used in a friendly or hostile way against someone or something. Such emotions involve indignation, wrath, grief, envy, and jealously. This term can also be used in the sense of striving for a respectable (admirable) code of conduct.

Old Testament: This term has a specific religious content involving God or God’s relationship with man. This zeal (jealousness) is closely linked to God’s holiness and power. There is no other similar usage in non-Jewish literature. I became resolutely devoted to her and strove persistently for good (Sir.51:18). Matthias was moved with fury and killed him upon the altar (1 Macc.2:24). Do not envy a sinner’s fame for you know what disaster awaits him (Sir.9:11). Do not envy the lawless man and choose his ways (Prov.3:31). He acquired such flocks, herds, and animals, that the Phillistines became envious of him (Gen.26:14). When Rachel failed to bear children to Jacob, she became envious of her sister (Gen.30:1)

Zealot movement (Zealotism): Phinehas started a movement which played a significant role in Jewish history in the first century B.C. The Zealots largely consisted of robber bands, fanatical patriots, and former Pharasaic followers. Pharasaism originally gave the Zealot movement both legal and religious standing (support). Political events and developments eventually led to the inevitable separation of the Zealots from the Pharisees.

Zealots and Palestinian Christians: Despite their great differences, these groups shared some common elements. The first band of disciples included Simon the Zealot. Both groups believe in the sole sovereignty of God, the readiness to suffer, and the desire for freedom. However, the preaching of Jesus’ principles were completely incompatible to the Zealots’ goals.  These principles include the command to love one’s enemies, to “turn the other cheek”, and acceptance of the Crucifixion of Christ.

New Testament: This term is primarily used to convey zeal for God, convey zeal against others, show deep concern for others, and strive for a moral ideal. The Zealots often resorted to violent (extreme) methods to show their zeal for God. The Jews often were zealous in their efforts to undermine the Christians. Paul shows deep concern for the congregation in being receptive to the gospel message. The Christian community was encouraged to live a moral and ethical life.

Scripture:

“…Simon the Zealot.” Lk.6:15

Simon the Zealot was one of the disciples. Despite their history of violence, the Zealots held common beliefs. It was in Jesus’ nature to welcome all in His inner circle.

“When the Jews saw the crowds, they were filled with jealousy and with violent abuse what Paul said.” Act.13:45

The Jews, being zealous observers of the Law, saw fit to disturb and interrupt this Christian gathering. Luke also presents the Jews being disruptive toward the Christians.

“I praise you because you remember me in everything and hold fast to the traditions just as I handed them on to you.” 1Cor.11:2

Paul is zealously concerned about his congregants. Paul is very concerned about their welfare.

“Now who is going to harm you if you are enthusiastic for what is good?” 1 Pet.3:13

The Christians are strongly encouraged to strive for moral and ethical behavior. These values go hand in hand with Jesus’ values. This practice comes from the Hellenistic traditions.

Conclusion:

Zeal, zealotry, emulate

I discovered that this term has a rich and varied history and back story. I can easily visualize how zealousness was played out on the Greek stage with dramatic performances and in tragic comedies.

I had already some understanding of the idea of a “jealous” God.  I didn’t realize that this is such an important theme with God and His relationship with man. I am not surprised that the Old Testament would borrow from the Hellenistic idea of ethical or moral ideals.

I never considered that there existed some seemingly shared common values between the Palestinian Christians and the Zealots. Perhaps, it is no surprise that there was a Zealot among Jesus’ inner circle. Evidently, the many players in the New Testament each had their own motivations for being zealous. I really became interested (perhaps not zealous) in learning about this term. But you get the idea…